History
History was, is, and will always be of crucial importance to humankind. It tells us how we have evolved; how we have grown; and how far we have come. In this category, you will find thought-provoking articles on historical events, wars, speeches, historians, and much more. The knowledge these articles offer is enriching and will help you to go back in time and explore the chronicles of our world.Facts About the Great Seal of the United States
All kinds of conspiracy theories tumble out of the proverbial closet at the mention of the Great Seal of the United States. This Buzzle article attempts to clear the air by presenting the most authentic facts about the Great Seal.
The creation of the Great Seal of the United States dates back to
the day of the country's independence from the British Empire―July 4th,
1776. A committee comprising Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and Thomas
Jefferson―Founding Fathers of the United States―was formed to oversee
the creation of a national emblem.
Six years went by, and the design of the Great Seal was finally approved on June 20, 1782. The seal is a fine representation of the beliefs and values as set forth by the nation's Founding Fathers.
Description of the Great Seal
The seal has two sides―the bald eagle appears on the obverse side, whereas the pyramid is present on the reverse.
The Obverse
Obverse face of the Great Seal
☆ At the center of the obverse side is the national bird of the United States, the bald eagle. The bird is seen holding a scroll in its beak inscribed with the Latin motto:
E pluribus Unum
This translates to 'One Out of Many', and is a reference to the nation created from 13 colonies. The eagle's right talon is grasping an olive branch, and the left clasps a bundle of thirteen arrows. The olive branch and arrows are symbols of the power of peace and war, respectively. The eagle is seen facing its right side, which holds the olive branch, and upholds peaceful motives.
☆ The eagle's chest is covered by a shield with thirteen red and white stripes. The shield is supported solely by the eagle―a metaphor representing the idea that Americans rely on their own virtue.
☆ The red and white stripes of the shield represent the 13 original colonies united and supporting the blue, which represents the President and Congress. The color white is a symbol of purity and innocence; red represents hardiness and valor; whereas blue signifies vigilance, perseverance, and justice.
☆ A cloud surrounding a blue field comprising 13 stars is seen above the eagle's head, forming a constellation. This represents the birth of a new State taking its place among other nations.
☆The number 13 is omnipresent, as is evident from the following―the stars in the crest above the eagle, the stripes in the shield upon the eagle's breast, the arrows in the eagle's left claw, all measure up to the same number. The original 13 colonies that made up the United States back then were:
Massachusetts
Connecticut
Rhode Island
New Hampshire
New York
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
Delaware
Virginia
Maryland
North Carolina
South Carolina
Georgia
The Reverse
Reverse face of the Great Seal
☆ The seal's reverse side has a 13-step pyramid with the year 1776 inscribed in Roman numerals at the base.
☆ Right at the top of the pyramid is the Eye of Providence with the Latin motto,
Annuit Cœptis
This means that the all-seeing Eye of Providence is favorable to all that we undertake.
☆ On a scroll below the pyramid are the words,
Novus Ordo Seclorum
which is Latin for New order of the ages, referring to 1776 as the beginning of the new American era.
Interesting Facts About the Great Seal
Obverse Great Seal on the one dollar bill
Reverse Great Seal on the one dollar bill
The Great Seal as seen on a one dollar bill.
Currently...
☆ The Great Seal is seen on the reverse of a United States' one dollar bill.
☆ The Secretary of State is the official custodian of the seal.
☆ It can only be affixed on specific documents, such as foreign treaties and presidential proclamations.
☆ The seal is on display in the Exhibit Hall of the Department of State, in Washington, DC.
Historically...
☆ Benjamin Franklin was on the original committee appointed to design the seal. He was also a famous Freemason. Before you yell c-o-n-s-p-i-r-a-c-y, let it be known that several of his design suggestions were rejected. He actually wanted a wild turkey in place of the bald eagle on the seal.
☆ The four men whose ideas were primarily adopted included Charles Thomson, Pierre Du Simitière, and William Barton. No one among these men was known to have Masonic connections.
Six years went by, and the design of the Great Seal was finally approved on June 20, 1782. The seal is a fine representation of the beliefs and values as set forth by the nation's Founding Fathers.
Description of the Great Seal
The seal has two sides―the bald eagle appears on the obverse side, whereas the pyramid is present on the reverse.
The Obverse
Obverse face of the Great Seal
☆ At the center of the obverse side is the national bird of the United States, the bald eagle. The bird is seen holding a scroll in its beak inscribed with the Latin motto:
E pluribus Unum
This translates to 'One Out of Many', and is a reference to the nation created from 13 colonies. The eagle's right talon is grasping an olive branch, and the left clasps a bundle of thirteen arrows. The olive branch and arrows are symbols of the power of peace and war, respectively. The eagle is seen facing its right side, which holds the olive branch, and upholds peaceful motives.
☆ The eagle's chest is covered by a shield with thirteen red and white stripes. The shield is supported solely by the eagle―a metaphor representing the idea that Americans rely on their own virtue.
☆ The red and white stripes of the shield represent the 13 original colonies united and supporting the blue, which represents the President and Congress. The color white is a symbol of purity and innocence; red represents hardiness and valor; whereas blue signifies vigilance, perseverance, and justice.
☆ A cloud surrounding a blue field comprising 13 stars is seen above the eagle's head, forming a constellation. This represents the birth of a new State taking its place among other nations.
☆The number 13 is omnipresent, as is evident from the following―the stars in the crest above the eagle, the stripes in the shield upon the eagle's breast, the arrows in the eagle's left claw, all measure up to the same number. The original 13 colonies that made up the United States back then were:
Massachusetts
Connecticut
Rhode Island
New Hampshire
New York
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
Delaware
Virginia
Maryland
North Carolina
South Carolina
Georgia
The Reverse
Reverse face of the Great Seal
☆ The seal's reverse side has a 13-step pyramid with the year 1776 inscribed in Roman numerals at the base.
☆ Right at the top of the pyramid is the Eye of Providence with the Latin motto,
Annuit Cœptis
This means that the all-seeing Eye of Providence is favorable to all that we undertake.
☆ On a scroll below the pyramid are the words,
Novus Ordo Seclorum
which is Latin for New order of the ages, referring to 1776 as the beginning of the new American era.
Interesting Facts About the Great Seal
Obverse Great Seal on the one dollar bill
Reverse Great Seal on the one dollar bill
The Great Seal as seen on a one dollar bill.
Currently...
☆ The Great Seal is seen on the reverse of a United States' one dollar bill.
☆ The Secretary of State is the official custodian of the seal.
☆ It can only be affixed on specific documents, such as foreign treaties and presidential proclamations.
☆ The seal is on display in the Exhibit Hall of the Department of State, in Washington, DC.
Historically...
☆ Benjamin Franklin was on the original committee appointed to design the seal. He was also a famous Freemason. Before you yell c-o-n-s-p-i-r-a-c-y, let it be known that several of his design suggestions were rejected. He actually wanted a wild turkey in place of the bald eagle on the seal.
☆ The four men whose ideas were primarily adopted included Charles Thomson, Pierre Du Simitière, and William Barton. No one among these men was known to have Masonic connections.
Inspirational Quotes by Sir Winston Churchill
Sir Winston Churchill is a figure revered in history not just for his exemplary oratory skills, but also for showing incredible leadership in times of grave danger. Here is a list of funny, inspirational, and some worthy of controversy quotes by none other than Churchill himself.
Sir Winston Churchill is a figure revered in history not just for his exemplary oratory skills, but also for showing incredible leadership in times of grave danger. Here is a list of funny, inspirational, and some worthy of controversy quotes by none other than Churchill himself.
Even half a century after his demise, Sir Winston Churchill remains
a true hero, a man who taught the world the true art of leadership. His
perseverance, his love for art, his never-say-die spirit, his tactful
decision-making qualities, and his incredible oratory skills make him
one of the greatest leaders that Britain ever produced.
Despite the inheritance of loss on becoming the Prime Minister of Britain on May 10, 1940, Churchill was determined to fight the possible emergence of the Dark Age under Hitler's regime with all his defiance, courage, reason, and let's not forget, confidence.
His speeches were fueled with conviction, optimism, and inspiration, which are qualities that fail the best of us in times of absolute crisis. His words are relevant even today as they continue to inspire, evoke laughter, and make you see the light at the end of the tunnel in situations that demand more than what you can offer. Here's a comprehensive compilation of famous quotes by Sir Winston Churchill for those who seek positive perspective on life
Best Quotes by Sir Winston Churchill
Writing a book is an adventure. To begin with it is a toy and an amusement. Then it becomes a mistress, then it becomes a master, then it becomes a tyrant. The last phase is that just as you are about to be reconciled to your servitude, you kill the monster and fling him to the public.
Success is not final, failure is not fatal: it is the courage to continue that counts.
A pessimist sees the difficulty in every opportunity; an optimist sees the opportunity in every difficulty.
Quote by Winston Churchill
Courage is what it takes to stand up and speak; courage is also what it takes to sit down and listen.
Men occasionally stumble over the truth, but most of them pick themselves up and hurry off as if nothing ever happened.
My tastes are simple: I am easily satisfied with the best.
If you are going through hell, keep going.
A lie gets halfway around the world before the truth has a chance to get its pants on.
Hitler knows that he will have to break us in this island or lose the war. If we can stand up to him, all Europe may be free and life of the world may move forward into broad, sunlit uplands. But if we fall, then the whole world, including the United States, including all that we have known and cared for, will sink into the abyss of a new Dark Age made more sinister, and perhaps more protracted, by the lights of perverted science. Let us therefore brace ourselves to our duties, and so bear ourselves that, if the British Empire and its Commonwealth lasts for a thousand years, men will still say, 'This was their finest hour!'
Tact is the ability to tell someone to go to hell in such a way that they look forward to the trip.
You have enemies? Good. That means you've stood up for something, sometime in your life.
Never, never, never give in!
Nothing in life is so exhilarating as to be shot at without result.
My most brilliant achievement was my ability to be able to persuade my wife to marry me.
I am fond of pigs. Dogs look up to us. Cats look down on us. Pigs treat us as equals.
It is not enough that we do our best; sometimes we must do what is required.
History will be kind to me for I intend to write it.
A lady came up to me one day and said 'Sir! You are drunk', to which I replied 'I am drunk today madam, and tomorrow I shall be sober but you will still be ugly.
For myself I am an optimist - it does not seem to be much use to be anything else.
Quote by Winston Churchill
Kites rise highest against the wind, not with it.
The best argument against democracy is a five-minute conversation with the average voter.
Personally, I'm always ready to learn, although I do not always like being taught.
A fanatic is one who can't change his mind and won't change the subject.
Never give in. Never give in. Never, never, never, never-in nothing, great or small, large or petty-never give in, except to convictions of honor and good sense. Never yield to force. Never yield to the apparently overwhelming might of the enemy.
Success is stumbling from failure to failure with no loss of enthusiasm.
Don't interrupt me while I'm interrupting.
Quote by Winston Churchill
The greatest lesson in life is to know that even fools are right sometimes.
We make a living by what we get. We make a life by what we give.
The price of greatness is responsibility.
Continuous effort - not strength or intelligence - is the key to unlocking our potential.
Attitude is a little thing that makes a big difference.
If you cannot read all your books...fondle them---peer into them, let them fall open where they will, read from the first sentence that arrests the eye, set them back on the shelves with your own hands, arrange them on your own plan so that you at least know where they are. Let them be your friends; let them, at any rate, be your acquaintances.
An appeaser is one who feeds a crocodile, hoping it will eat him last.
Show me a young Conservative and I'll show you someone with no heart. Show me an old Liberal and I'll show you someone with no brains.
We are all worms, But I do believe that I am a glow worm.
To improve is to change; to be perfect is to change often.
Quote by Winston Churchill
We are masters of the unsaid words, but slaves of those we let slip out.
To each there comes in their lifetime a special moment when they are figuratively tapped on the shoulder and offered the chance to do a very special thing, unique to them and fitted to their talents. What a tragedy if that moment finds them unprepared or unqualified for that which could have been their finest hour.
I pass with relief from the tossing sea of Cause and Theory to the firm ground of Result and Fact.
How dreadful are the curses which Mohammedanism lays on its votaries! Besides the fanatical frenzy, which is as dangerous in a man as hydrophobia in a dog, there is this fearful fatalistic apathy. The effects are apparent in many countries. Improvident habits, slovenly systems of agriculture, sluggish methods of commerce, and insecurity of property exist wherever the followers of the Prophet rule or live. A degraded sensualism deprives this life of its grace and refinement; the next of its dignity and sanctity. The fact that in Mohammedan law every woman must belong to some man as his absolute property - either as a child, a wife, or a concubine - must delay the final extinction of slavery until the faith of Islam has ceased to be a great power among men. Thousands become the brave and loyal soldiers of the faith: all know how to die but the influence of the religion paralyses the social development of those who follow it. No stronger retrograde force exists in the world. Far from being moribund, Mohammedanism is a militant and proselytizing faith. It has already spread throughout Central Africa, raising fearless warriors at every step; and were it not that Christianity is sheltered in the strong arms of science, the science against which it had vainly struggled, the civilisation of modern Europe might fall, as fell the civilisation of ancient Rome.
We sleep safely at night because rough men stand ready to visit violence on those who would harm us.
When the eagles are silent, the parrots begin to jabber.
Everyone is in favor of free speech. Hardly a day passes without its being extolled, but some people's idea of it is that they are free to say what they like, but if anyone else says anything back, that is an outrage.
All the great things are simple, and many can be expressed in a single word: freedom, justice, honor, duty, mercy, hope.
You ask, what is our aim? I can answer in one word. It is victory, victory at all costs, victory in spite of all terror, victory, however long and hard the road may be; for without victory, there is no survival.
In the course of my life, I have often had to eat my words, and I must confess that I have always found it a wholesome diet.
Criticism may not be agreeable, but it is necessary. It fulfills the same function as pain in the human body; it calls attention to the development of an unhealthy state of things. If it is heeded in time, danger may be averted; if it is suppressed, a fatal distemper may develop.
Now this is not the end. It is not even the beginning of the end. But it is, perhaps, the end of the beginning.
The farther backward you can look, the farther forward you are likely to see.
A joke is a very serious thing.
When you get a thing the way you want it, leave it alone.
If you have an important point to make, don't try to be subtle or clever. Use a pile driver. Hit the point once. Then come back and hit it again. Then hit it a third time - a tremendous whack.
It is a good thing for an uneducated man to read books of quotations.
Before you can inspire with emotion, you must be swamped with it yourself. Before you can move their tears, your own must flow. To convince them, you must yourself, believe.
History is written by the victors.
Healthy citizens are the greatest asset any country can have.
Occasionally he stumbled over the truth, but hastily picked himself up and hurried on as if nothing had happened.
We contend that for a nation to try to tax itself into prosperity is like a man standing in a bucket and trying to lift himself up by the handle.
Despite the inheritance of loss on becoming the Prime Minister of Britain on May 10, 1940, Churchill was determined to fight the possible emergence of the Dark Age under Hitler's regime with all his defiance, courage, reason, and let's not forget, confidence.
His speeches were fueled with conviction, optimism, and inspiration, which are qualities that fail the best of us in times of absolute crisis. His words are relevant even today as they continue to inspire, evoke laughter, and make you see the light at the end of the tunnel in situations that demand more than what you can offer. Here's a comprehensive compilation of famous quotes by Sir Winston Churchill for those who seek positive perspective on life
Best Quotes by Sir Winston Churchill
Writing a book is an adventure. To begin with it is a toy and an amusement. Then it becomes a mistress, then it becomes a master, then it becomes a tyrant. The last phase is that just as you are about to be reconciled to your servitude, you kill the monster and fling him to the public.
Success is not final, failure is not fatal: it is the courage to continue that counts.
A pessimist sees the difficulty in every opportunity; an optimist sees the opportunity in every difficulty.
Quote by Winston Churchill
Courage is what it takes to stand up and speak; courage is also what it takes to sit down and listen.
Men occasionally stumble over the truth, but most of them pick themselves up and hurry off as if nothing ever happened.
My tastes are simple: I am easily satisfied with the best.
If you are going through hell, keep going.
A lie gets halfway around the world before the truth has a chance to get its pants on.
Hitler knows that he will have to break us in this island or lose the war. If we can stand up to him, all Europe may be free and life of the world may move forward into broad, sunlit uplands. But if we fall, then the whole world, including the United States, including all that we have known and cared for, will sink into the abyss of a new Dark Age made more sinister, and perhaps more protracted, by the lights of perverted science. Let us therefore brace ourselves to our duties, and so bear ourselves that, if the British Empire and its Commonwealth lasts for a thousand years, men will still say, 'This was their finest hour!'
Tact is the ability to tell someone to go to hell in such a way that they look forward to the trip.
You have enemies? Good. That means you've stood up for something, sometime in your life.
Never, never, never give in!
Nothing in life is so exhilarating as to be shot at without result.
My most brilliant achievement was my ability to be able to persuade my wife to marry me.
I am fond of pigs. Dogs look up to us. Cats look down on us. Pigs treat us as equals.
It is not enough that we do our best; sometimes we must do what is required.
History will be kind to me for I intend to write it.
A lady came up to me one day and said 'Sir! You are drunk', to which I replied 'I am drunk today madam, and tomorrow I shall be sober but you will still be ugly.
For myself I am an optimist - it does not seem to be much use to be anything else.
Quote by Winston Churchill
Kites rise highest against the wind, not with it.
The best argument against democracy is a five-minute conversation with the average voter.
Personally, I'm always ready to learn, although I do not always like being taught.
A fanatic is one who can't change his mind and won't change the subject.
Never give in. Never give in. Never, never, never, never-in nothing, great or small, large or petty-never give in, except to convictions of honor and good sense. Never yield to force. Never yield to the apparently overwhelming might of the enemy.
Success is stumbling from failure to failure with no loss of enthusiasm.
Don't interrupt me while I'm interrupting.
Quote by Winston Churchill
The greatest lesson in life is to know that even fools are right sometimes.
We make a living by what we get. We make a life by what we give.
The price of greatness is responsibility.
Continuous effort - not strength or intelligence - is the key to unlocking our potential.
Attitude is a little thing that makes a big difference.
If you cannot read all your books...fondle them---peer into them, let them fall open where they will, read from the first sentence that arrests the eye, set them back on the shelves with your own hands, arrange them on your own plan so that you at least know where they are. Let them be your friends; let them, at any rate, be your acquaintances.
An appeaser is one who feeds a crocodile, hoping it will eat him last.
Show me a young Conservative and I'll show you someone with no heart. Show me an old Liberal and I'll show you someone with no brains.
We are all worms, But I do believe that I am a glow worm.
To improve is to change; to be perfect is to change often.
Quote by Winston Churchill
We are masters of the unsaid words, but slaves of those we let slip out.
To each there comes in their lifetime a special moment when they are figuratively tapped on the shoulder and offered the chance to do a very special thing, unique to them and fitted to their talents. What a tragedy if that moment finds them unprepared or unqualified for that which could have been their finest hour.
I pass with relief from the tossing sea of Cause and Theory to the firm ground of Result and Fact.
How dreadful are the curses which Mohammedanism lays on its votaries! Besides the fanatical frenzy, which is as dangerous in a man as hydrophobia in a dog, there is this fearful fatalistic apathy. The effects are apparent in many countries. Improvident habits, slovenly systems of agriculture, sluggish methods of commerce, and insecurity of property exist wherever the followers of the Prophet rule or live. A degraded sensualism deprives this life of its grace and refinement; the next of its dignity and sanctity. The fact that in Mohammedan law every woman must belong to some man as his absolute property - either as a child, a wife, or a concubine - must delay the final extinction of slavery until the faith of Islam has ceased to be a great power among men. Thousands become the brave and loyal soldiers of the faith: all know how to die but the influence of the religion paralyses the social development of those who follow it. No stronger retrograde force exists in the world. Far from being moribund, Mohammedanism is a militant and proselytizing faith. It has already spread throughout Central Africa, raising fearless warriors at every step; and were it not that Christianity is sheltered in the strong arms of science, the science against which it had vainly struggled, the civilisation of modern Europe might fall, as fell the civilisation of ancient Rome.
We sleep safely at night because rough men stand ready to visit violence on those who would harm us.
When the eagles are silent, the parrots begin to jabber.
Everyone is in favor of free speech. Hardly a day passes without its being extolled, but some people's idea of it is that they are free to say what they like, but if anyone else says anything back, that is an outrage.
All the great things are simple, and many can be expressed in a single word: freedom, justice, honor, duty, mercy, hope.
You ask, what is our aim? I can answer in one word. It is victory, victory at all costs, victory in spite of all terror, victory, however long and hard the road may be; for without victory, there is no survival.
In the course of my life, I have often had to eat my words, and I must confess that I have always found it a wholesome diet.
Criticism may not be agreeable, but it is necessary. It fulfills the same function as pain in the human body; it calls attention to the development of an unhealthy state of things. If it is heeded in time, danger may be averted; if it is suppressed, a fatal distemper may develop.
Now this is not the end. It is not even the beginning of the end. But it is, perhaps, the end of the beginning.
The farther backward you can look, the farther forward you are likely to see.
A joke is a very serious thing.
When you get a thing the way you want it, leave it alone.
If you have an important point to make, don't try to be subtle or clever. Use a pile driver. Hit the point once. Then come back and hit it again. Then hit it a third time - a tremendous whack.
It is a good thing for an uneducated man to read books of quotations.
Before you can inspire with emotion, you must be swamped with it yourself. Before you can move their tears, your own must flow. To convince them, you must yourself, believe.
History is written by the victors.
Healthy citizens are the greatest asset any country can have.
Occasionally he stumbled over the truth, but hastily picked himself up and hurried on as if nothing had happened.
We contend that for a nation to try to tax itself into prosperity is like a man standing in a bucket and trying to lift himself up by the handle.
Emergency in India (1975): Causes and Consequences
One of the darkest periods in the history of the Republic of India was the declaration of a state of emergency in 1975. Here's some info about the period, including what caused it and what it led to.
The Emergency was a 21-month period during which the Prime Minister
of India, Indira Gandhi, declared a state of emergency across the
country. This led to suspension of elections, severe curtailing of civil
liberties, and censoring of all media. The passing of the Emergency,
brought about by the President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, gave Indira Gandhi
the power to practically rule by decree.
The Emergency is considered the darkest period in the history of the Indian democracy, and is considered a huge mistake on the part of Indira Gandhi. Here's some more detailed info about the Emergency.
Background to The Emergency in India
It's necessary to gain some preliminary knowledge about the instigator of the Emergency, Indira Gandhi, before we delve into the momentous decision.
Indira Gandhi was the daughter of Jawaharlal Nehru, India's first Prime Minister and among the second generation of the famous Nehru-Gandhi clan. Nehru was succeeded as Prime Minister by Lal Bahadur Shastri, and after his death in 1966, Gandhi succeeded him to the seat.
She was a charismatic leader, popular particularly in the minorities and troubled groups of India, such as people of the lower caste, women, etc. Her ruthless, calculated political maneuvers and popular charm allowed her to concentrate incredible power in the PMO. Her son, Sanjay Gandhi, was influential in the political scenario despite not being elected to any position, and executed many actions thanks to the nepotistic tendencies of Indian politics.
Indira Gandhi was also criticized for her desire to control the judiciary of India. In the Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala case, the Supreme Court decided, in a 7-6 decision, that the Parliament had no right to alter the fundamental principles of the Constitution, even though it could bring about amendments. This led Gandhi to appoint one of the judges in the minority, A. N. Ray, to the post of Chief Justice of India. Ray had usurped three senior judges in acquiring this position, and the interference from the executive in matters of the judiciary was severely criticized all over the country.
Her opposition slowly started to gain strength through the 1970s, and the rising tension came to a head in the form of the case State of Uttar Pradesh v. Raj Narain.
Rising Tension
Indira Gandhi faced charges of electoral misconduct over her victory from the Rae Bareli constituency in Uttar Pradesh in the 1971 elections. The case, decided in 1975, resulted in the more serious charges against Gandhi―such as bribery and forcing government employees to promote her case―being waved away, but her being convicted for relatively minor infractions such as misappropriating government property and getting the police to construct her dais.
The court declared the 1971 results in Rae Bareli null and void, and Gandhi was banned from holding elected offices for six years. Justice Jagmohan Sinha was responsible for the decision. The Congress party was given 20 days to replace Gandhi from her positions. However, Gandhi's appeal to the Supreme Court was successful in canceling her eviction, though at the cost of getting her a conditional stay of execution, which banned her from voting in the legislative assembly and took away her privileges as a Member of Parliament. She was allowed to continue as the Prime Minister, but the reduction in her capacities would reduce the post to a mere moniker.
Though the charges brought against her had been relatively trivial, the opposition to the Congress government latched on to it and started demanding Gandhi's exit. Jayaprakash Narayan, a Gandhian and socialist leader of the masses, had already instigated numerous agitations and protests against Gandhi's administration in several states, and he came to the fore as Gandhi's detractors started to gain power. Jayaprakash Narayan, known as JP, organized more protests across the country, aided by future Prime Minister Morarji Desai and labor leader George Fernandes. Student and labor unions were at the forefront of these agitations. JP had earlier demanded a 'total revolution' across India, even asking the Army and police forces to disobey Gandhi's orders, which he claimed were unconstitutional and immoral.
Though the Gandhi-led administration would rightly be vilified for the declaration of the Emergency, the extreme reaction of Jayaprakash Narayan, Morarji Desai, and the likes, to the Raj Narain case is considered by many political commentators as sufficient justification of Gandhi's decision.
Declaring the Emergency
The intent of Jayaprakash Narayan to incite agitations in "every district headquarter" and ask the armed forces to disobey her orders led Gandhi to term it as a threat to national security. Citing a provision that allowed the Prime Minister to unilaterally declare Emergency without consulting the Parliament, Gandhi got the compliant President at the time, Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, to sign the Emergency into effect, just before midnight on June 25, 1975.
The MPs were notified on the morning of June 26. Soon, Gandhi started to arrest her main political opponents and severely reduced civil liberties of the masses so that an organized uprising couldn't form against her. She also implemented strict censoring rules on the press, allowing no unfavorable opinion against her administration to be published.
Raj Narain―Gandhi's proximal opponent―and Jayaprakash Narayan were among the first to be arrested; other leaders of the Janata Party, including Morarji Desai, L. K. Advani, and Atal Bihari Vajpayee soon followed suit. M. K. Stalin, the son of M. Karunanidhi, leader of Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam, was also arrested and subjected to heavy abuse.
During the Emergency
Elections for both state and central assemblies were suspended, and public meetings were severely restricted. Since Gandhi's administration had the majority necessary to change the constitution or initiate new laws, Gandhi practically got the power to rule by decree. She would declare 'Ordinances' through the sympathetic President, which allowed her to even avoid the Parliamentary procedure. She also enacted policies that enabled her to divert any blame for scandals away from her office. The states of Tamil Nadu and Gujarat were brought under President's Rule, the latter after the Gujarat administration had not carried out several of Gandhi's unconstitutional orders.
National media was used virtually exclusively for government propaganda. Even minor deviations from the government's regulations were not allowed. One newspaper was forced to cancel a birthday message for Jayaprakash Narayan; the editor of the paper published a blank page in protest.
One of the most controversial aspects of the Gandhi regime during this period is the forcibly carried out sterilization programs conducted by Sanjay Gandhi. Driven to reduce the nation's population, which Sanjay Gandhi believed to be the root cause of many of India's problems, countless Indians were forced to undergo family planning operations, regardless of their wishes. This has had a long-lasting impact on Indian policies, with administrations post-Emergency focusing on education as a means of reducing population instead of mandates.
The 42nd Amendment to the Constitution of India was brought about, completely changing the face of the proclamation, even the preamble. This amendment is now infamous as the Constitution of Indira. Among other changes, this Amendment limited the common man's access to the Supreme Court, which was now all but a front for the Central government. This denial of the ultimate judiciary of the country to the majority was a particularly rankling change, and was a major point raised by Gandhi's detractors against her administration.
Religious organizations such as the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) and Jamaat-e-Islami were also banned. The RSS, along with many Sikh organizations, remained a major force in organizing protest and agitations against the central administration. The RSS was noted as being "the only non-left revolutionary force in the world" by The Economist due to their organization of peaceful satyagraha movements.
The Emergency is considered the darkest period in the history of the Indian democracy, and is considered a huge mistake on the part of Indira Gandhi. Here's some more detailed info about the Emergency.
Background to The Emergency in India
It's necessary to gain some preliminary knowledge about the instigator of the Emergency, Indira Gandhi, before we delve into the momentous decision.
Indira Gandhi was the daughter of Jawaharlal Nehru, India's first Prime Minister and among the second generation of the famous Nehru-Gandhi clan. Nehru was succeeded as Prime Minister by Lal Bahadur Shastri, and after his death in 1966, Gandhi succeeded him to the seat.
She was a charismatic leader, popular particularly in the minorities and troubled groups of India, such as people of the lower caste, women, etc. Her ruthless, calculated political maneuvers and popular charm allowed her to concentrate incredible power in the PMO. Her son, Sanjay Gandhi, was influential in the political scenario despite not being elected to any position, and executed many actions thanks to the nepotistic tendencies of Indian politics.
Indira Gandhi was also criticized for her desire to control the judiciary of India. In the Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala case, the Supreme Court decided, in a 7-6 decision, that the Parliament had no right to alter the fundamental principles of the Constitution, even though it could bring about amendments. This led Gandhi to appoint one of the judges in the minority, A. N. Ray, to the post of Chief Justice of India. Ray had usurped three senior judges in acquiring this position, and the interference from the executive in matters of the judiciary was severely criticized all over the country.
Her opposition slowly started to gain strength through the 1970s, and the rising tension came to a head in the form of the case State of Uttar Pradesh v. Raj Narain.
Rising Tension
Indira Gandhi faced charges of electoral misconduct over her victory from the Rae Bareli constituency in Uttar Pradesh in the 1971 elections. The case, decided in 1975, resulted in the more serious charges against Gandhi―such as bribery and forcing government employees to promote her case―being waved away, but her being convicted for relatively minor infractions such as misappropriating government property and getting the police to construct her dais.
The court declared the 1971 results in Rae Bareli null and void, and Gandhi was banned from holding elected offices for six years. Justice Jagmohan Sinha was responsible for the decision. The Congress party was given 20 days to replace Gandhi from her positions. However, Gandhi's appeal to the Supreme Court was successful in canceling her eviction, though at the cost of getting her a conditional stay of execution, which banned her from voting in the legislative assembly and took away her privileges as a Member of Parliament. She was allowed to continue as the Prime Minister, but the reduction in her capacities would reduce the post to a mere moniker.
Though the charges brought against her had been relatively trivial, the opposition to the Congress government latched on to it and started demanding Gandhi's exit. Jayaprakash Narayan, a Gandhian and socialist leader of the masses, had already instigated numerous agitations and protests against Gandhi's administration in several states, and he came to the fore as Gandhi's detractors started to gain power. Jayaprakash Narayan, known as JP, organized more protests across the country, aided by future Prime Minister Morarji Desai and labor leader George Fernandes. Student and labor unions were at the forefront of these agitations. JP had earlier demanded a 'total revolution' across India, even asking the Army and police forces to disobey Gandhi's orders, which he claimed were unconstitutional and immoral.
Though the Gandhi-led administration would rightly be vilified for the declaration of the Emergency, the extreme reaction of Jayaprakash Narayan, Morarji Desai, and the likes, to the Raj Narain case is considered by many political commentators as sufficient justification of Gandhi's decision.
Declaring the Emergency
The intent of Jayaprakash Narayan to incite agitations in "every district headquarter" and ask the armed forces to disobey her orders led Gandhi to term it as a threat to national security. Citing a provision that allowed the Prime Minister to unilaterally declare Emergency without consulting the Parliament, Gandhi got the compliant President at the time, Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, to sign the Emergency into effect, just before midnight on June 25, 1975.
The MPs were notified on the morning of June 26. Soon, Gandhi started to arrest her main political opponents and severely reduced civil liberties of the masses so that an organized uprising couldn't form against her. She also implemented strict censoring rules on the press, allowing no unfavorable opinion against her administration to be published.
Raj Narain―Gandhi's proximal opponent―and Jayaprakash Narayan were among the first to be arrested; other leaders of the Janata Party, including Morarji Desai, L. K. Advani, and Atal Bihari Vajpayee soon followed suit. M. K. Stalin, the son of M. Karunanidhi, leader of Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam, was also arrested and subjected to heavy abuse.
During the Emergency
Elections for both state and central assemblies were suspended, and public meetings were severely restricted. Since Gandhi's administration had the majority necessary to change the constitution or initiate new laws, Gandhi practically got the power to rule by decree. She would declare 'Ordinances' through the sympathetic President, which allowed her to even avoid the Parliamentary procedure. She also enacted policies that enabled her to divert any blame for scandals away from her office. The states of Tamil Nadu and Gujarat were brought under President's Rule, the latter after the Gujarat administration had not carried out several of Gandhi's unconstitutional orders.
National media was used virtually exclusively for government propaganda. Even minor deviations from the government's regulations were not allowed. One newspaper was forced to cancel a birthday message for Jayaprakash Narayan; the editor of the paper published a blank page in protest.
One of the most controversial aspects of the Gandhi regime during this period is the forcibly carried out sterilization programs conducted by Sanjay Gandhi. Driven to reduce the nation's population, which Sanjay Gandhi believed to be the root cause of many of India's problems, countless Indians were forced to undergo family planning operations, regardless of their wishes. This has had a long-lasting impact on Indian policies, with administrations post-Emergency focusing on education as a means of reducing population instead of mandates.
The 42nd Amendment to the Constitution of India was brought about, completely changing the face of the proclamation, even the preamble. This amendment is now infamous as the Constitution of Indira. Among other changes, this Amendment limited the common man's access to the Supreme Court, which was now all but a front for the Central government. This denial of the ultimate judiciary of the country to the majority was a particularly rankling change, and was a major point raised by Gandhi's detractors against her administration.
Religious organizations such as the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) and Jamaat-e-Islami were also banned. The RSS, along with many Sikh organizations, remained a major force in organizing protest and agitations against the central administration. The RSS was noted as being "the only non-left revolutionary force in the world" by The Economist due to their organization of peaceful satyagraha movements.
List of Famous Explorers in History
There have been several famous people in history who were born with an adventurous spirit to explore the unknown. They did this while risking their own lives, and their contribution to this world was tremendous. We have put up a list of famous explorers who have done a lot for mankind.Outrightly rejecting the claims of religion and conventions of the society, a deep desire to explore the unknown, and unveil the unseen―these must have been the motivations when the explorers set out on voyages to discover new lands. Below is the list of the European, French, Spanish and American explorers, whose discoveries changed the geography as well as the history of the world.
These explorers you will read about took out expeditions into uncharted territory that went on for years. They were unlike common people because of their sheer courage, intelligence, and seamanship that helped them achieve notable success. Here are some reputed voyagers whose names echo out in history even today.
Ibn Battuta
Moroccan Explorer
February 25, 1304 - 1368 or 1369
ibn battuta
Ibn Battuta was a Moroccan explorer who was regarded by many historians as one of the greatest travelers ever. He was born in 14th century in present-day Morocco. He was a devout and orthodox Muslim and showed an interest in going for Hajj, or the holy pilgrimage to Mecca. In those days, people still traveled on horse and camel backs in hordes or caravans. This was primarily to avoid the Arab Bedouin, who looted and murdered travelers. Ibn Battuta joined one such caravan traveling to Mecca. Later, the explorer in him would awaken, as he would take many detours on his way to the Holy city.
He always took the least-traveled route to Mecca and visited Egypt, Syria, Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and Hebron. When he did make it to Mecca, he did not turn back and go home. He went north to Iraq, then to Arabia, and then went south to Africa. After this, he sailed to modern-day India and was employed in the court of Mughal emperor Muhammad bin Tughluq as a judge. The emperor appointed him as an ambassador, and Battuta readily accepted it. He went to China and Southeast Asia in his official capacity.
After his journey to China was over, he came back to India and made his way to Calicut, two centuries before Vasco da Gama. He knew that if he went back to Tughluq's court, he would have to serve the emperor for the rest of his life. The will to travel was still there, and hence, he made his way out of India, going back home. From there he traversed North Africa, Timbuktu, and Mali.
Why He is Awesome
He traveled approximately 73,000 miles during his entire journey. And this was when there was no steam or internal combustion engine. It took him 29 years to achieve this feat (understandably!). The most impressive thing about his travels was that he was alive after 29 years of traveling. He took the most treacherous roads and was looted and almost killed on multiple occasions, but he still survived and carried on. This also says a lot about his communication and convincing capabilities.
Vasco da Gama
Portuguese Explorer
c. 1460s - 23 December 1524
vasco da gama
Vasco da Gama was a 15th-century Portuguese explorer. He was born in a small fisherman town of Sines, Portugal. His early life is relatively unknown. He followed his father's footsteps in becoming a knight of the Order of Santiago. He was given a mission to deter French ships that harassed Portuguese ships carrying traded goods. This was effectively carried out by Vasco, and he was given his own fleet.
He requested an armada to explore the sea route beyond Cape of Good Hope. At that time, India was discovered, but the spice routes through the Mediterranean mountains was treacherous and full of warring tribes, making trade risky. This was the first mission of Vasco da Gama―to find a sea route, directly linking Portugal to India. He took off from the port of Lisbon on July 8, 1497 and reached Calicut, India on May 20, 1498. This was a historic occasion because he was the first one to find a sea link from Europe to India.
He went to the court of Zamorin, who was the ruling king at that time. He requested that he leave some of his men back to take care of the merchandise he could not sell. This offer was rejected, and this angered Vasco da Gama. He returned to Portugal in anger and sought revenge. However, the trip was pronounced a success in Portugal, and he was seen as a hero. This effectively opened up the colonial race between Spain, England, France, and Portugal. Portugal started a flourishing trade with India and refilled its treasury with the booming spice trade it created.
Vasco da Gama did come back with a very heavily armored armada, looking to bring Zamorin to his knees. But this did not happen, and in the end, Vasco came back red-faced. This remains to be the only blot in his otherwise illustrious career.
Why He is Awesome
He did what the previous sailors could not do―sail around Africa and reach the Indian Subcontinent. Christopher Columbus had tried reaching Asia, but could not do so due to navigational errors, but Vasco accomplished this. He also opened up an alternative trade route between Europe and Asia. This snowballed into an economic boom for Europe.
Ferdinand Magellan
Portuguese Explorer
1480 - 27 April 1521
ferdinand magellan
Magellan is a Portuguese explorer. His birthplace is disputed, but is either Porto or Sabrosa. He served under King Manuel I and was one of the sailors to accompany the fleet of the First viceroy of India. He lived in India for 8 years spending time in Goa and Cochin.
He put in persistent requests to his king for a separate trade route from the East, but this request was rejected. The king got irritated, and Magellan fell out of favor. He then took a leave without permission and went with the same request to King Charles, who was the ruling king of Spain. At that time, Spain wanted a separate route to trade spices that did not interfere with the Portuguese route. The king granted him a fleet of 5 ships.
Magellan crossed the Atlantic and reached Brazil. Following the South American coast, he reached the southern tip of the continent, now named as the Magellan Strait. He then crossed the Pacific Ocean and reached Philippines, that he called the Spice Country.
The locals greeted him with open arms, but he was sucked into a local battle and was killed with a wooden spear through his chest. The survivors managed their way back.
Why He is Awesome
Well, for starters, he did circumnavigate the globe. He traveled 37,560 miles on the sea. His voyage prompted the first confusion about the date and time, because they had traveled opposite the direction of the rotation of the Earth. This came to be the International Date Line. He also discovered new species in his travels, namely the Guanaco and the Magellanic penguin.
Christopher Columbus
Italian Explorer
Before October 31, 1451 - 20 May 1506
christopher columbus
Columbus was an Italian explorer born in the Republic of Genoa, Italy. He is famous for opening up the American continent for trading with the whole of Europe. He started out as a business agent for a merchant, eventually moving up the ranks and commanding his own ship. His reasons for exploration were the same as that of Vasco da Gama. The mission was to find an alternative trade route between Europe and Asia. Columbus suggested that he sail westward and that if he sailed far enough, he would eventually land on Japanese shores.
He tried selling this idea to the Portuguese King, John II. His undertaking was found to be too ambitious and hence was rejected. Then he approached the Spanish king. He accepted, but refused to fund the expedition fully. So, he turned to private businessmen and traders who invested and funded him.
Columbus sailed westward and landed on the Canary Islands on October 12, 1492. He wrongly interpreted the continent as India. This was actually West Indies, and that's how the country got its name. He would go on to discover South America, Cuba, and Jamaica.
Why He is Awesome
Columbus was not a born seafarer. His knowledge about sailing was very limited, but still he achieved his goal. He did remain adamant that the land he discovered was India. He also convinced his investors and the Catholic priests to fund him. This was almost an impossible task as the Church believed that the Earth was flat. Columbus knew that the Earth was spherical, but still managed to convince the church to fund his expedition.
Captain James Cook
British Explorer
November 7, 1728 - February 14, 1779
captain james cook
Captain Cook was born in the village Marton, Yorkshire to a farm laborer with the same name. He joined the merchant navy as an apprentice and showed natural abilities to sail. He taught himself algebra, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy to prepare for the exams to get into the Royal Navy. He was selected as a master's mate and served well.
His major career breakthrough came when the English were trying to wrest Canada off the hands of the French during The Seven Years' War. He was exceptionally talented in navigation, surveying, and cartography. His accurate maps of the Canadian coastline helped the British seize control of Canada.
This impressed the Admiralty, and he was given permission to sail in uncharted waters of the Pacific Ocean in search for new land. This was how he discovered Australia, circumnavigated New Zealand, and also mapped Hawaii.
Why He is Awesome
Captain James Cook was very gifted in navigation and made accurate longitude tables. He also helped discover over 3,000 species of plants. His maps of the various lands he discovered are almost accurate. At that time, they were the most detailed maps present. He also managed to not lose a single crew member during the whole expedition. He submitted many research papers of his expeditions. Such was his fame that when the colonists were fighting the British, they were specifically told not to harm Cook's ship.
Roald Amundsen
Norwegian Explorer
July 16, 1872 - June 18, 1928
roald amundsen
Amundsen was a Norwegian explorer, and is the first man to see both the North and the South Poles. He enrolled in an academic institution on his mother's request, but dropped out as soon as his mother passed away. He had the itch to explore, and hence, he joined the Belgian Antarctic Expedition.
He with his crew are the first people to traverse the Northwest Passage―the passage that connects Atlantic to the Pacific ocean. He learned important lessons from this expedition; most importantly, how to survive in the brutal cold.
After vigorous fundraising, he undertook an expedition to the South Pole. A similar expedition was undertaken by a British explorer named Robert Cook. This turned out to be a sort of a race to the Pole. After landing on the Antarctic shore, a distance of about 3,440 kilometers back and forth to the pole had to be covered. Amundsen prepared meticulously, overseeing food rations, modes of transport, selecting able men, and the most important factor of all, choosing dogs that would pull the sleds. In the end, he chose 55 dogs.
It took him 2 years to accomplish this task. The crew hunted seals for meat and even ate the dogs when meat was in shortage. This unsentimental ruthless focus was the factor why Amundsen won the race.
Why He is Awesome
Amundsen saw both the Poles first. He put the flags of Norway on both the Poles. The average temperature during his expedition in the Antarctic was -40°Celsius. He made use of techniques he learned in his previous voyages and expeditions. He also died doing what he did best. He passed away during a rescue operation near the North Pole.
Yuri Gagarin and Neil Armstrong
Space Explorers
Yuri Gagarin: March 9, 1934 - March 27, 1968
Neil Armstrong: August 5, 1930 - August 25, 2012
yuri gagarin
Yuri Gagarin
neil armstrong
Neil Armstrong
After the whole planet was explored, humans turned to outer space, calling it the final frontier. Although Gagarin was just 300 odd kilometers above land, he circumnavigated the planet in a mere hour. Gagarin and Armstrong both faced perils of space, which was unexplored, and hence, their expeditions were full of uncertainties. Both were experimental test pilots, and both went to places where no one had ever been to.
Gagarin had much more humble beginnings, being born in a communist country. The tough life did not deter him. He worked hard and became a party member, taking up apprenticeship. He also enrolled in the state-run technical school, where he studied tractors. It was here that he developed his love for machines. He also enrolled himself as an air cadet and flew Yak planes. His qualities were not missed, and he was promptly drafted with the Soviet army and later selected for the most elite space program the world knew. The evaluator at the Vostok program describes Yuri as an extremely driven and determined personality. He is also known to be very aware and intelligent, quite adept at mathematics and very sure of the opinions he held true. Fitting qualities of an explorer!
On the other hand, Armstrong was always interested in flying and knew where he would land up. He, like Gagarin, also took to flying at an early age. He served in the Navy for two years and flew a variety of planes. He earned a reputation of being compatible with different makes of airplanes. He studied Aeronautical Engineering from Purdue University after his Navy stint and did his Masters in the same field. He became a test pilot after his education and flew experimental aircraft such as the B-29 and X-15. He was recognized for his talents and was selected for the Apollo program.
Both showed exceptional leadership abilities and acumen for flying and explored something that was guessed to be impossible to explore. The fear of deep waters and high mountains is palpable, but it becomes more fearsome when you are left in a scenario where there is absolutely no air, abound with lethal radiation and extreme temperatures. It becomes even more fearsome if it is uncharted, and you are the first person over there. Gagarin was the first in space, and Armstrong was the first to land on the moon. It must have taken enormous amount of training and courage to keep calm under the circumstances, even more so for Armstrong, where 400 million people were tuned into their radio sets, keeping track of his every move.
Why Both Are Awesome
Because they were space jockeys. Period.
Other Honorable Mentions
Explorer Exploration
Sir Francis Drake He circumnavigated the world.
Amerigo Vespucci He was the first person to point out that America was a new continent.
Charles Darwin He was the first person to explore the flora and fauna and came up with a theory that shook the foundation of creationism―evolution.
Leif Erikson This viking was blown off-course from his route and landed in North America, thus, being the first European to land on the American Continent.
Marco Polo His extensive trip in the oriental lands for 17 years gave Europe the first look into the culture of Asia in detail.
Vasco Núñez de Balboa He was the first European explorer to have seen the Pacific Ocean from its eastern shore.
Sir Humphrey Gilbert He established St. John's, Newfoundland.
Sir John Hawkins He undertook voyages to West Africa and S. America.
Hernán Cortés A Spanish explorer, he conquered Mexico and the Aztec Empire.
Bartolomeu Dias He was the first explorer who undertook a voyage around Cape of Good Hope, which was on the southernmost tip of South Africa.
Samuel de Champlain He founded Quebec City.
amerigo vespucci
charles darwin
These men overcame not only the uncertainty of the scenario of their expedition ahead, but also the fear inside themselves. Going into the unknown probably evokes the most primal fear in any person, and these explorers came out on top by conquering these fears using courage. They, thus, captured new frontiers, becoming legends in their own right.
Best Quotes by Nelson Mandela
Rolihlahla Mandela, better known to us as Nelson Mandela, was an anti-apartheid revolutionary, politician and philanthropist from South Africa. However, words like these are not enough to contain and describe all the values he stood for. Buzzle brings you a compilation of his finest quotes, giving you but a glimpse into the greatness that was Mr. Mandela.
Rolihlahla Mandela, better known to us as Nelson Mandela, was an anti-apartheid revolutionary, politician and philanthropist from South Africa. However, words like these are not enough to contain and describe all the values he stood for. Buzzle brings you a compilation of his finest quotes, giving you but a glimpse into the greatness that was Mr. Mandela.
When Nelson Mandela accepted the Nobel Prize in 1993, he accepted
it as a representative of the countless people who stood united in the
effort of seeing their nation break free of prejudice and inequality.
Never a person to hog the limelight, Mr. Mandela belonged entirely to
his countrymen, and is an icon for everyone seeking justice and equality
in our world today.
Nelson Mandela's legacy stands strong even today, seeing as he has attained a demigod-like status in his home country of South Africa. But the best way to remember and honor him is to live by his words, and follow the path he has charted. We give you the best and most inspirational quotes of Nelson Mandela.
On Courage
"When a man is denied the right to live the life he believes in, he has no choice but to become an outlaw."
"Courage is not the absence of fear - it is inspiring others to move beyond it."
"I learned that courage was not the absence of fear, but the triumph over it. The brave man is not he who does not feel afraid, but he who conquers that fear."
"It always seems impossible until it's done."
"The brave man is not the one who has no fears, he is the one who triumphs over his fears."
On dissolving hatred
On Education
"A good head and good heart are always a formidable combination. But when you add to that a literate tongue or pen, then you have something very special."
"Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world."
On Freedom and Equality
"Let there be justice for all. Let there be peace for all. Let there be work, bread, water and salt for all. Let each know that for each the body, the mind and the soul have been freed to fulfill themselves."
"The truth is that we are not yet free; we have merely achieved the freedom to be free, the right not to be oppressed. We have not taken the final step of our journey, but the first step on a longer and even more difficult road. For to be free is not merely to cast off one's chains, but to live in a way that respects and enhances the freedom of others. The true test of our devotion to freedom is just beginning."
"There is a universal respect and even admiration for those who are humble and simple by nature, and who have absolute confidence in all human beings irrespective of their social status."
"I have walked that long road to freedom. I have tried not to falter; I have made missteps along the way. But I have discovered the secret that after climbing a great hill, one only finds that there are many more hills to climb. I have taken a moment here to rest, to steal a view of the glorious vista that surrounds me, to look back on the distance I have come. But I can only rest for a moment, for with freedom come responsibilities, and I dare not linger, for my long walk is not ended."
"As I walked out the door toward the gate that would lead to my freedom, I knew if I didn't leave my bitterness and hatred behind, I'd still be in prison."
"And as we let our own light shine, we unconsciously give other people permission to do the same. As we are liberated from our own fear, our presence automatically liberates others."
"You will achieve more in this world through acts of mercy than you will through acts of retribution."
On human capabilities
On Poverty
"Overcoming poverty is not a task of charity, it is an act of justice. Like Slavery and Apartheid, poverty is not natural. It is man-made and it can be overcome and eradicated by the actions of human beings. Sometimes it falls on a generation to be great. YOU can be that great generation. Let your greatness blossom."
On Leadership
"A leader. . .is like a shepherd. He stays behind the flock, letting the most nimble go out ahead, whereupon the others follow, not realizing that all along they are being directed from behind."
"In my country we go to prison first and then become President."
"Lead from the back ― and let others believe they are in front."
"As I have said, the first thing is to be honest with yourself. You can never have an impact on society if you have not changed yourself... Great peacemakers are all people of integrity, of honesty, but humility."
"I have never cared very much for personal prizes. A person does not become a freedom fighter in the hope of winning awards."
"It is better to lead from behind and to put others in front, especially when you celebrate victory when nice things occur. You take the front line when there is danger. Then people will appreciate your leadership."
"If you talk to a man in a language he understands, that goes to his head. If you talk to him in his language, that goes to his heart."
"It is said that no one truly knows a nation until one has been inside its jails. A nation should not be judged by how it treats its highest citizens, but its lowest ones."
On humility
On Racism
"Why is it that in this courtroom I face a white magistrate, am confronted by a white prosecutor and escorted into the dock by a white orderly? Can anyone honestly and seriously suggest that in this type of atmosphere the scales of justice are evenly balanced?"
"During my lifetime I have dedicated myself to this struggle of the African people. I have fought against white domination, and I have fought against black domination. I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons live together in harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to live for and to achieve. But if needs be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die."
"No one is born hating another person because of the colour of his skin, or his background, or his religion. People must learn to hate, and if they can learn to hate, they can be taught to love, for love comes more naturally to the human heart than its opposite... Man's goodness is a flame that can be hidden but never explained."
On South Africa
"In our language there is a saying Ndiwelimilambo enamagama - I have crossed famous rivers. It means that one has travelled and, in the process, gained much experience. Indeed I had since 1934 been crossing important rivers of my country: Mbashe, Great Kei, Orange and the Vaal. I had seen new places and new faces, absorbed new ideas and renounced old ones."
"As long as many of our people still live in utter poverty, as long as children still live under plastic covers, as long as many of our people are still without jobs, no South African should rest and wallow in the joy of freedom."
"We were expected to destroy one another and ourselves collectively in the worst racial conflagration. Instead, we as a people chose the path of negotiation, compromise and peaceful settlement. Instead of hatred and revenge we chose reconciliation and nation-building."
"We have not taken the final step of our journey, but the first step on a longer and even more difficult road."
"It is not our diversity which divides us; it is not our ethnicity, or religion or culture that divides us. Since we have achieved our freedom, there can only be one division amongst us: between those who cherish democracy and those who do not."
On Family Ties
"I have often wondered whether a person is justified in neglecting his own family to fight for opportunities for others."
"Physical suffering is nothing compared to the trampling down of those tender bonds that form the basis of the institution of marriage and the family that unite man and wife."
On liberation
Inspirational Quotes
"Appearances matter - and remember to smile."
"After climbing a great hill, one only finds that there are many more hills to climb."
"Resentment is like drinking poison and then hoping it will kill your enemies."
"The greatest glory in living
lies not in never falling,
but in rising every time we fall."
"I am not a saint, unless you think of a saint as a sinner who keeps on trying."
"There is nothing like returning to a place that remains unchanged to find the ways in which you yourself have altered."
"Do not judge me by my successes, judge me by how many times I fell down and got back up again."
"One cannot be prepared for something while secretly believing it will not happen."
"It is not where you start but how high you aim that matters for success."
"Live life as though nobody is watching, and express yourself as though everyone is listening."
"Tread softly,
Breathe peacefully,
Laugh hysterically."
"We must use time creatively, and forever realize that the time is always ripe to do right."
"Your playing small does not serve the world. Who are you not to be great?"
"There is no passion to be found playing small - in settling for a life that is less than the one you are capable of living."
Nelson Mandela's legacy stands strong even today, seeing as he has attained a demigod-like status in his home country of South Africa. But the best way to remember and honor him is to live by his words, and follow the path he has charted. We give you the best and most inspirational quotes of Nelson Mandela.
On Courage
"When a man is denied the right to live the life he believes in, he has no choice but to become an outlaw."
"Courage is not the absence of fear - it is inspiring others to move beyond it."
"I learned that courage was not the absence of fear, but the triumph over it. The brave man is not he who does not feel afraid, but he who conquers that fear."
"It always seems impossible until it's done."
"The brave man is not the one who has no fears, he is the one who triumphs over his fears."
On dissolving hatred
On Education
"A good head and good heart are always a formidable combination. But when you add to that a literate tongue or pen, then you have something very special."
"Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world."
On Freedom and Equality
"Let there be justice for all. Let there be peace for all. Let there be work, bread, water and salt for all. Let each know that for each the body, the mind and the soul have been freed to fulfill themselves."
"The truth is that we are not yet free; we have merely achieved the freedom to be free, the right not to be oppressed. We have not taken the final step of our journey, but the first step on a longer and even more difficult road. For to be free is not merely to cast off one's chains, but to live in a way that respects and enhances the freedom of others. The true test of our devotion to freedom is just beginning."
"There is a universal respect and even admiration for those who are humble and simple by nature, and who have absolute confidence in all human beings irrespective of their social status."
"I have walked that long road to freedom. I have tried not to falter; I have made missteps along the way. But I have discovered the secret that after climbing a great hill, one only finds that there are many more hills to climb. I have taken a moment here to rest, to steal a view of the glorious vista that surrounds me, to look back on the distance I have come. But I can only rest for a moment, for with freedom come responsibilities, and I dare not linger, for my long walk is not ended."
"As I walked out the door toward the gate that would lead to my freedom, I knew if I didn't leave my bitterness and hatred behind, I'd still be in prison."
"And as we let our own light shine, we unconsciously give other people permission to do the same. As we are liberated from our own fear, our presence automatically liberates others."
"You will achieve more in this world through acts of mercy than you will through acts of retribution."
On human capabilities
On Poverty
"Overcoming poverty is not a task of charity, it is an act of justice. Like Slavery and Apartheid, poverty is not natural. It is man-made and it can be overcome and eradicated by the actions of human beings. Sometimes it falls on a generation to be great. YOU can be that great generation. Let your greatness blossom."
On Leadership
"A leader. . .is like a shepherd. He stays behind the flock, letting the most nimble go out ahead, whereupon the others follow, not realizing that all along they are being directed from behind."
"In my country we go to prison first and then become President."
"Lead from the back ― and let others believe they are in front."
"As I have said, the first thing is to be honest with yourself. You can never have an impact on society if you have not changed yourself... Great peacemakers are all people of integrity, of honesty, but humility."
"I have never cared very much for personal prizes. A person does not become a freedom fighter in the hope of winning awards."
"It is better to lead from behind and to put others in front, especially when you celebrate victory when nice things occur. You take the front line when there is danger. Then people will appreciate your leadership."
"If you talk to a man in a language he understands, that goes to his head. If you talk to him in his language, that goes to his heart."
"It is said that no one truly knows a nation until one has been inside its jails. A nation should not be judged by how it treats its highest citizens, but its lowest ones."
On humility
On Racism
"Why is it that in this courtroom I face a white magistrate, am confronted by a white prosecutor and escorted into the dock by a white orderly? Can anyone honestly and seriously suggest that in this type of atmosphere the scales of justice are evenly balanced?"
"During my lifetime I have dedicated myself to this struggle of the African people. I have fought against white domination, and I have fought against black domination. I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons live together in harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to live for and to achieve. But if needs be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die."
"No one is born hating another person because of the colour of his skin, or his background, or his religion. People must learn to hate, and if they can learn to hate, they can be taught to love, for love comes more naturally to the human heart than its opposite... Man's goodness is a flame that can be hidden but never explained."
On South Africa
"In our language there is a saying Ndiwelimilambo enamagama - I have crossed famous rivers. It means that one has travelled and, in the process, gained much experience. Indeed I had since 1934 been crossing important rivers of my country: Mbashe, Great Kei, Orange and the Vaal. I had seen new places and new faces, absorbed new ideas and renounced old ones."
"As long as many of our people still live in utter poverty, as long as children still live under plastic covers, as long as many of our people are still without jobs, no South African should rest and wallow in the joy of freedom."
"We were expected to destroy one another and ourselves collectively in the worst racial conflagration. Instead, we as a people chose the path of negotiation, compromise and peaceful settlement. Instead of hatred and revenge we chose reconciliation and nation-building."
"We have not taken the final step of our journey, but the first step on a longer and even more difficult road."
"It is not our diversity which divides us; it is not our ethnicity, or religion or culture that divides us. Since we have achieved our freedom, there can only be one division amongst us: between those who cherish democracy and those who do not."
On Family Ties
"I have often wondered whether a person is justified in neglecting his own family to fight for opportunities for others."
"Physical suffering is nothing compared to the trampling down of those tender bonds that form the basis of the institution of marriage and the family that unite man and wife."
On liberation
Inspirational Quotes
"Appearances matter - and remember to smile."
"After climbing a great hill, one only finds that there are many more hills to climb."
"Resentment is like drinking poison and then hoping it will kill your enemies."
"The greatest glory in living
lies not in never falling,
but in rising every time we fall."
"I am not a saint, unless you think of a saint as a sinner who keeps on trying."
"There is nothing like returning to a place that remains unchanged to find the ways in which you yourself have altered."
"Do not judge me by my successes, judge me by how many times I fell down and got back up again."
"One cannot be prepared for something while secretly believing it will not happen."
"It is not where you start but how high you aim that matters for success."
"Live life as though nobody is watching, and express yourself as though everyone is listening."
"Tread softly,
Breathe peacefully,
Laugh hysterically."
"We must use time creatively, and forever realize that the time is always ripe to do right."
"Your playing small does not serve the world. Who are you not to be great?"
"There is no passion to be found playing small - in settling for a life that is less than the one you are capable of living."
Interesting Facts About the Palace of Westminster
As one of the most recognizable landmarks in the world, the Palace of Westminster is symbolic of the indomitable spirit of the British. This Buzzle write-up has all that you need to know about this incredible structure.
As one of the most recognizable landmarks in the world, the Palace of Westminster is symbolic of the indomitable spirit of the British. This Buzzle write-up has all that you need to know about this incredible structure.
Who built the Palace of Westminster?
The Westminster Palace was originally a royal residence built in the 11th century CE for Edward the Confessor. 500 years later, much of the structure was destroyed in a fire. It was subsequently rebuilt, only to be ravaged in another fire, this time in 1834. The currently-standing Gothic design of the Palace is attributed to architect Charles Barry. Major repair works have been done since, following the bombing in WWII and to reverse the effects of London's air pollution.
The Palace of Westminster, also known as the Houses of Parliament, is probably the most beautiful building in all of London. That, combined with its spectacular location on the banks of the Thames in central London, makes it one of the most popular tourist destinations in the world today.
The Westminster Palace houses around 1,100 rooms and close to 3 miles of passageways, covering four levels. On the ground floor, one can find offices, dining rooms, and bars; the first floor, or the principal floor, has the main rooms of the Palace, which include the debating chambers, the lobbies, and the libraries. The top-two floors are used as committee rooms and offices.
The Palace has a long-drawn and interesting history, having witnessed a few devastating fires, quite a lot of hooliganism, and of course, the WWII bombing. But it's stood tall through all the ordeal, barring a few wounds of victory.
Historical Facts about the Westminster Palace
The Westminster Hall is the only part of the original Palace which still stands. This opulent hall was built in 1097 under William II (Rufus), the son of William the Conqueror, and took 2 years to complete. In those times, it was probably the largest hall in all of Europe, measuring 240 X 67 feet, with a floor area of 17,000 square feet.
Westminster Palace with Big Ben
The Westminster Palace with the Clock Tower (Big Ben) on the right.
The Hall's massive roof manages to baffle architects even today. It wasn't until the 13th or 14th century CE that carpenters could create roofs which were wider than the length of the available timber. It was therefore assumed that a single or double row of columns supported the Hall's roof. However, recent archaeological explorations found no evidence of these to have ever existed, and that the roof may have been self-supporting from the beginning.
The walls of the Hall are about six feet thick, although they have been heightened and resurfaced over the years.
As it was the Royal residence, the Parliament also met here. In fact, the Model Parliament, the oldest in England, met here way back in 1295.
Construction activity was quite regular on the Palace grounds with a view to accommodate the growing needs of the Members of Parliament. A new west façade facing onto St. Margaret Street was built in the Palladian style between 1755 and 1770, which provided that much-needed space for document storage and committee rooms. An official residence for the Speaker of the House of Commons was built next to St. Stephen's Chapel in 1795. Extensive work was also carried out on both the House of Lords and Commons between 1799 and 1801.
Westminster Palace aerial view
The Westminster Palace as seen from the London Eye.
The Gunpowder Plot of 1605, led by Guy Fawkes, was a foiled attempt to reduce the House of Lords to rubble. The tradition of marking the day with the ringing of church bells and bonfires started soon after the Plot's discovery, and fireworks were included in some of the earliest celebrations. In Britain, the 5th of November is variously called Bonfire Night, Fireworks Night, or Guy Fawkes Night, in commemoration of the event.
On October 16, 1834, a fire broke out in the Palace caused by an overheated stove, lighting up the House of Lords Chamber. In the ensuing blaze, both Houses of Parliament were destroyed, along with most of the other buildings in the palace complex. Westminster Hall was saved owing to brave efforts of the firefighters and a change in the direction of the wind. The Jewel Tower, the Undercroft Chapel and the Cloisters, and Chapter House of St Stephen's were the only other parts of the Palace to remain unscathed.
Pillar carvings
Pillar carvings seen inside the complex.
In 1836, a public competition was organized inviting ideas to design a new Palace in either Gothic or Elizabethan style. 97 entries came in, from which 4 were shortlisted. Out of these, the one that bore the emblem of the Portcullis was unanimously selected. This design was created by architect Charles Barry. Construction of the new structure began in 1840, and neared completion by 1860.
At the north-eastern end of the Palace stands London's most iconic landmark, the Clock Tower (316 ft), commonly known as Big Ben after its main bell. The tower's four-faced clock was actually designed by Augustus Pugin. It was originally meant to serve as a ventilating chimney for stale air and smoke from fireplaces.
Statue of King Richard I
The statue of King Richard I suffered damage from the WWII bombings.
Incessant bombing during WWII caused great damage to the Palace. The Commons Chamber was hit by bombs on the nights of May 10th and 11th, 1941, and the roof of Westminster Hall caught fire. The Commons Chamber was entirely destroyed by the fire which spread to the Members' Lobby and caused the ceiling to collapse. All that remained was a pile of rubble.
Rebuilding of the Commons Chamber began in May 1945, and was completed in 1950. Designed by Giles Gilbert Scott, it adhered to its original shape, with its small size (containing only 427 seats for 646 MPs) and confrontational design helps to keep debates lively, yet intimate.
A Few Fun Facts
When it comes to the British, traditions can't be too far behind. Here's a quirky one―lifts, despite being a modern contraption, have hooks inside them, meant exclusively for hanging swords. In fact, floor markings in the Commons Chamber have been designed to be 2 sword lengths apart. You know, just in case the debate starts getting too hot.
Smoking is not allowed inside the Commons Chamber. There is, however, a snuffbox by the front door. It's been there since ages as an apparent replacement for a ciggie, and it's always full of snuff.
Westminster Palace at night
The Palace lights up the Thames at night.
In the Anglo-Saxon days, the Parliament was a place where the King and his courtiers met, which was termed the Witenagemot ("meeting of wise men"). Does it ring a bell? Yes, all you Harry Potter fans, we do get 'Wizengamot' from the same word.
If you're confused as to which House you're standing in, just look at the carpets. The House of Commons will have a green one, while the House of Lords will be red.
Until her death, Margaret Thatcher was the only living person to have her statue placed in Westminster Palace. It looks as menacing as the Iron Lady herself, wagging a well-meaning finger at passing people, most of whom are MPs themselves.
Next to her is an impressive statue of Mr. Winston Churchill. The Tory MPs had once made a tradition of touching the feet of the statue as they made their way inside the building, as a salute to the great leader.
And finally, you can't take in any animals inside the Palace, except for guard dogs, but the place is seemingly infested with mice.
The Westminster Palace was originally a royal residence built in the 11th century CE for Edward the Confessor. 500 years later, much of the structure was destroyed in a fire. It was subsequently rebuilt, only to be ravaged in another fire, this time in 1834. The currently-standing Gothic design of the Palace is attributed to architect Charles Barry. Major repair works have been done since, following the bombing in WWII and to reverse the effects of London's air pollution.
The Palace of Westminster, also known as the Houses of Parliament, is probably the most beautiful building in all of London. That, combined with its spectacular location on the banks of the Thames in central London, makes it one of the most popular tourist destinations in the world today.
The Westminster Palace houses around 1,100 rooms and close to 3 miles of passageways, covering four levels. On the ground floor, one can find offices, dining rooms, and bars; the first floor, or the principal floor, has the main rooms of the Palace, which include the debating chambers, the lobbies, and the libraries. The top-two floors are used as committee rooms and offices.
The Palace has a long-drawn and interesting history, having witnessed a few devastating fires, quite a lot of hooliganism, and of course, the WWII bombing. But it's stood tall through all the ordeal, barring a few wounds of victory.
Historical Facts about the Westminster Palace
The Westminster Hall is the only part of the original Palace which still stands. This opulent hall was built in 1097 under William II (Rufus), the son of William the Conqueror, and took 2 years to complete. In those times, it was probably the largest hall in all of Europe, measuring 240 X 67 feet, with a floor area of 17,000 square feet.
Westminster Palace with Big Ben
The Westminster Palace with the Clock Tower (Big Ben) on the right.
The Hall's massive roof manages to baffle architects even today. It wasn't until the 13th or 14th century CE that carpenters could create roofs which were wider than the length of the available timber. It was therefore assumed that a single or double row of columns supported the Hall's roof. However, recent archaeological explorations found no evidence of these to have ever existed, and that the roof may have been self-supporting from the beginning.
The walls of the Hall are about six feet thick, although they have been heightened and resurfaced over the years.
As it was the Royal residence, the Parliament also met here. In fact, the Model Parliament, the oldest in England, met here way back in 1295.
Construction activity was quite regular on the Palace grounds with a view to accommodate the growing needs of the Members of Parliament. A new west façade facing onto St. Margaret Street was built in the Palladian style between 1755 and 1770, which provided that much-needed space for document storage and committee rooms. An official residence for the Speaker of the House of Commons was built next to St. Stephen's Chapel in 1795. Extensive work was also carried out on both the House of Lords and Commons between 1799 and 1801.
Westminster Palace aerial view
The Westminster Palace as seen from the London Eye.
The Gunpowder Plot of 1605, led by Guy Fawkes, was a foiled attempt to reduce the House of Lords to rubble. The tradition of marking the day with the ringing of church bells and bonfires started soon after the Plot's discovery, and fireworks were included in some of the earliest celebrations. In Britain, the 5th of November is variously called Bonfire Night, Fireworks Night, or Guy Fawkes Night, in commemoration of the event.
On October 16, 1834, a fire broke out in the Palace caused by an overheated stove, lighting up the House of Lords Chamber. In the ensuing blaze, both Houses of Parliament were destroyed, along with most of the other buildings in the palace complex. Westminster Hall was saved owing to brave efforts of the firefighters and a change in the direction of the wind. The Jewel Tower, the Undercroft Chapel and the Cloisters, and Chapter House of St Stephen's were the only other parts of the Palace to remain unscathed.
Pillar carvings
Pillar carvings seen inside the complex.
In 1836, a public competition was organized inviting ideas to design a new Palace in either Gothic or Elizabethan style. 97 entries came in, from which 4 were shortlisted. Out of these, the one that bore the emblem of the Portcullis was unanimously selected. This design was created by architect Charles Barry. Construction of the new structure began in 1840, and neared completion by 1860.
At the north-eastern end of the Palace stands London's most iconic landmark, the Clock Tower (316 ft), commonly known as Big Ben after its main bell. The tower's four-faced clock was actually designed by Augustus Pugin. It was originally meant to serve as a ventilating chimney for stale air and smoke from fireplaces.
Statue of King Richard I
The statue of King Richard I suffered damage from the WWII bombings.
Incessant bombing during WWII caused great damage to the Palace. The Commons Chamber was hit by bombs on the nights of May 10th and 11th, 1941, and the roof of Westminster Hall caught fire. The Commons Chamber was entirely destroyed by the fire which spread to the Members' Lobby and caused the ceiling to collapse. All that remained was a pile of rubble.
Rebuilding of the Commons Chamber began in May 1945, and was completed in 1950. Designed by Giles Gilbert Scott, it adhered to its original shape, with its small size (containing only 427 seats for 646 MPs) and confrontational design helps to keep debates lively, yet intimate.
A Few Fun Facts
When it comes to the British, traditions can't be too far behind. Here's a quirky one―lifts, despite being a modern contraption, have hooks inside them, meant exclusively for hanging swords. In fact, floor markings in the Commons Chamber have been designed to be 2 sword lengths apart. You know, just in case the debate starts getting too hot.
Smoking is not allowed inside the Commons Chamber. There is, however, a snuffbox by the front door. It's been there since ages as an apparent replacement for a ciggie, and it's always full of snuff.
Westminster Palace at night
The Palace lights up the Thames at night.
In the Anglo-Saxon days, the Parliament was a place where the King and his courtiers met, which was termed the Witenagemot ("meeting of wise men"). Does it ring a bell? Yes, all you Harry Potter fans, we do get 'Wizengamot' from the same word.
If you're confused as to which House you're standing in, just look at the carpets. The House of Commons will have a green one, while the House of Lords will be red.
Until her death, Margaret Thatcher was the only living person to have her statue placed in Westminster Palace. It looks as menacing as the Iron Lady herself, wagging a well-meaning finger at passing people, most of whom are MPs themselves.
Next to her is an impressive statue of Mr. Winston Churchill. The Tory MPs had once made a tradition of touching the feet of the statue as they made their way inside the building, as a salute to the great leader.
And finally, you can't take in any animals inside the Palace, except for guard dogs, but the place is seemingly infested with mice.
One of the most important battles in the American Revolutionary War
was the Battle of Camden. Facts about this war bear out the story of
where this war was won and lost. Here is a brief account of the Battle
of Camden.
The Combatants
The following regiments took part in the Battle of Camden:
British:
23rd Foot, the Royal Welch Fusiliers
33rd Foot, now the Duke of Wellington's Regiment
Two battalions of Fraser's 71st Highlanders
Lord Rawdon's Irish Volunteers
Tarleton's Legion
Loyalist militia
Americans:
1st Maryland Regiment
2nd Maryland Regiment
1st Delaware Regiment
North Carolina militia
Virginia militia
The Battle of Camden, fought on August 16, 1780, was a major battle in the American War of Independence. It was fought between the Colonial forces led by Major General Horatio Gates and British forces led by Lieutenant General Lord Charles Cornwallis. It was fought about five miles north of the city of Camden, South Carolina. It was one of the worst and most lopsided defeats for the Americans in the Revolutionary War, and allowed the British to strengthen their hold over the Carolinas following their capture of Charleston.
Facts About the Battle of Camden
It is necessary to know some background to understand why the Battle of Camden was so important.
Before the Battle
The Battles of Saratoga, which ended in a decisive and influential victory for the Americans, forced a change in the British strategy. This battle had convinced the French to openly ally with the Americans in order to avenge their defeat to the British in the French and Indian War. This alliance forced the British to divert their resources― committed to quelling the American rebellion― towards French establishments in the Americas. As a result, they had to rely more on American Loyalists, centered in the American South.
This reformed campaign gained strength when Savannah, Georgia, and Charleston, South Carolina, were captured in 1778 and 1780, respectively. Having masterminded the victory at Charleston, General Sir Henry Clinton returned to New York, leaving Lord Cornwallis to strengthen the newly gained Southern territory.
The vanquished Continental Army in the South, driven out of South Carolina in May 1780, had regrouped in Charlotte, North Carolina. Major General Horatio Gates, whose role in the Battles of Saratoga was celebrated, joined this band in July 1780.
Leading up to the Battle
In the first of his many errors, Gates ordered an uncharacteristically aggressive march into South Carolina. In doing this, he ignored the advice of the council at Charlotte, who knew that Gates' path led through primarily Loyalist-populated areas and could be troublesome for the Continental Army. Gates was also unaware of the capabilities of his own army, a majority of which was made up by untrained and inexperienced militia, and inexperienced regulars.
Gates also erred by sending small parts of his army to assist other operations in the area. The Continental Army was also significantly affected by diseases caused by the extreme heat and the insufficient and inadequate food. Many soldiers suffered from dysentery and other digestive disorders. This effectively halved the number of Gates' troops; while he had over 4,000 soldiers in his camp at Camden, not more than 2,500 were combat-ready.
The importance of securing Camden was that its strategic location afforded control over South Carolina's backcountry. This meant that the British strongholds further south had to send reinforcements to aid Lord Rawdon, who held station at Camden.
Alerted to Gates' ill-advised movement through Loyalist-populated areas, Lord Cornwallis marched to Camden with reinforcements, bringing the British forces in the area to over 2,000. This made the two armies effectively equal in numbers. Cornwallis also held another advantage: more than three quarters of the Brit army were experienced, regular soldiers, in contrast to the untrained militia making up the bulk of the Continental Army.
The Events of the Battle
The two armies faced off at dawn on August 16. This was in spite of the fact that the American army had suffered from fresh bouts of digestive disorders the previous day. As a result, even though the army outnumbered the Redcoats 2 to 1, the numerical advantage was soon wiped out.
Gates then made another error while forming his ranks, by placing his weakest unit, the North Carolina and Virginia militia, to the American left, in front of the strongest British unit, the 23rd Royal Welch Fusiliers and the 33rd Foot. The Irish Volunteers, the weakest unit of the Brits and commanded by Lord Rawdon, was stationed at the British left. This mirroring configuration was due to Gates' past in the British army, where putting the strongest division to the right was the custom. This was arguably his biggest mistake regarding the battle itself.
Gates also severely underrated his opponent Lord Cornwallis' strategic acumen. Gates' famous success at Saratoga had been achieved against John Burgoyne, an altogether lesser strategist and tactician than Cornwallis, and Gates' overconfidence led him to believe that his numerical superiority would win out in the end.
The battle was initiated by the strong British right flank, causing havoc in the North Carolina militia with the first volley, followed by a bayonet charge. The militia, lacking bayonets, panicked and many fled the field. The Virginia militia, stationed to the left of the North Carolina militia, gave up so soon that only three of the group were killed. Gates also fled the field alongside the first of the militia, leaving his subordinates to salvage something out of the almighty mess.
The British made short work of defeating the stronger American right flank. Led by Mordecai Gist and the greatly respected Baron Johann de Kalb, the American army tried to get to the weaker Irish Volunteers, but were repelled by heavy gunfire. The British left flank, led by Lord Rawdon, then destabilized the American lines with a counterattack, forcing the latter to wheel around and flee. De Kalb was shot several times trying to motivate and regroup his soldiers, and died of the injuries three days later.
While both Cornwallis and Gates had stationed their weakest units to the left following the British custom, the British irregulars and Loyalists were much more experienced than the American militias. If the American arrangement had been inverted, the weaker but more numerous American militia units might have had a chance. However, they were forced to face the strongest British unit, while the Loyalists and Irish Volunteers managed to hold off the strongest American section, allowing Rawdon's regulars to inflict serious damage.
Lord Cornwallis then unleashed Banastre Tarleton's light cavalry, notoriously skilled in pursuit operations. Attacked from the rear by Tarleton's Legion, the remaining Continental forces, which had bravely held the British at bay, broke ranks and fled. Tarleton pursued the Americans for about 20 miles before retreating.
Aftermath
About half the American forces were either killed or captured. All seven of their guns were captured, and an able commander was lost in the form of Baron de Kalb. An apocryphal tale states that Cornwallis, who respected de Kalb, personally oversaw, ultimately unsuccessful, British efforts to heal the fallen American general.
The British suffered 324 casualties in total, with 68 lives lost, 11 others missing, and 245 wounded.
Horatio Gates, who had retreated all the way back to Charlotte, North Carolina, was stripped of his military duties. Incredibly, his connections with the U.S. Congress meant that he escaped further punishment and inquiries. His reputation, earned on the falsely glorifying victory at Saratoga, was in tatters. Major General Nathanael Greene, who eventually evicted the British from the Carolinas, was appointed in his place as the Commander of the southern Continental Army.
Despite the emphatic victory, the success didn't last long for the British. Having led the army in this significant victory, Lord Cornwallis then found further success hard to come. He advanced into Virginia, believing that Virginia needed to be controlled in order to establish a stronghold in the South. This allowed Greene to recapture the Carolinas, effectively wiping out British presence in the South. Cornwallis' mostly failed campaign along the Atlantic seaboard eventually led to the siege and capture of Yorktown by the George Washington-led Continental Army and the French Navy.
The following regiments took part in the Battle of Camden:
British:
23rd Foot, the Royal Welch Fusiliers
33rd Foot, now the Duke of Wellington's Regiment
Two battalions of Fraser's 71st Highlanders
Lord Rawdon's Irish Volunteers
Tarleton's Legion
Loyalist militia
Americans:
1st Maryland Regiment
2nd Maryland Regiment
1st Delaware Regiment
North Carolina militia
Virginia militia
The Battle of Camden, fought on August 16, 1780, was a major battle in the American War of Independence. It was fought between the Colonial forces led by Major General Horatio Gates and British forces led by Lieutenant General Lord Charles Cornwallis. It was fought about five miles north of the city of Camden, South Carolina. It was one of the worst and most lopsided defeats for the Americans in the Revolutionary War, and allowed the British to strengthen their hold over the Carolinas following their capture of Charleston.
Facts About the Battle of Camden
It is necessary to know some background to understand why the Battle of Camden was so important.
Before the Battle
The Battles of Saratoga, which ended in a decisive and influential victory for the Americans, forced a change in the British strategy. This battle had convinced the French to openly ally with the Americans in order to avenge their defeat to the British in the French and Indian War. This alliance forced the British to divert their resources― committed to quelling the American rebellion― towards French establishments in the Americas. As a result, they had to rely more on American Loyalists, centered in the American South.
This reformed campaign gained strength when Savannah, Georgia, and Charleston, South Carolina, were captured in 1778 and 1780, respectively. Having masterminded the victory at Charleston, General Sir Henry Clinton returned to New York, leaving Lord Cornwallis to strengthen the newly gained Southern territory.
The vanquished Continental Army in the South, driven out of South Carolina in May 1780, had regrouped in Charlotte, North Carolina. Major General Horatio Gates, whose role in the Battles of Saratoga was celebrated, joined this band in July 1780.
Leading up to the Battle
In the first of his many errors, Gates ordered an uncharacteristically aggressive march into South Carolina. In doing this, he ignored the advice of the council at Charlotte, who knew that Gates' path led through primarily Loyalist-populated areas and could be troublesome for the Continental Army. Gates was also unaware of the capabilities of his own army, a majority of which was made up by untrained and inexperienced militia, and inexperienced regulars.
Gates also erred by sending small parts of his army to assist other operations in the area. The Continental Army was also significantly affected by diseases caused by the extreme heat and the insufficient and inadequate food. Many soldiers suffered from dysentery and other digestive disorders. This effectively halved the number of Gates' troops; while he had over 4,000 soldiers in his camp at Camden, not more than 2,500 were combat-ready.
The importance of securing Camden was that its strategic location afforded control over South Carolina's backcountry. This meant that the British strongholds further south had to send reinforcements to aid Lord Rawdon, who held station at Camden.
Alerted to Gates' ill-advised movement through Loyalist-populated areas, Lord Cornwallis marched to Camden with reinforcements, bringing the British forces in the area to over 2,000. This made the two armies effectively equal in numbers. Cornwallis also held another advantage: more than three quarters of the Brit army were experienced, regular soldiers, in contrast to the untrained militia making up the bulk of the Continental Army.
The Events of the Battle
The two armies faced off at dawn on August 16. This was in spite of the fact that the American army had suffered from fresh bouts of digestive disorders the previous day. As a result, even though the army outnumbered the Redcoats 2 to 1, the numerical advantage was soon wiped out.
Gates then made another error while forming his ranks, by placing his weakest unit, the North Carolina and Virginia militia, to the American left, in front of the strongest British unit, the 23rd Royal Welch Fusiliers and the 33rd Foot. The Irish Volunteers, the weakest unit of the Brits and commanded by Lord Rawdon, was stationed at the British left. This mirroring configuration was due to Gates' past in the British army, where putting the strongest division to the right was the custom. This was arguably his biggest mistake regarding the battle itself.
Gates also severely underrated his opponent Lord Cornwallis' strategic acumen. Gates' famous success at Saratoga had been achieved against John Burgoyne, an altogether lesser strategist and tactician than Cornwallis, and Gates' overconfidence led him to believe that his numerical superiority would win out in the end.
The battle was initiated by the strong British right flank, causing havoc in the North Carolina militia with the first volley, followed by a bayonet charge. The militia, lacking bayonets, panicked and many fled the field. The Virginia militia, stationed to the left of the North Carolina militia, gave up so soon that only three of the group were killed. Gates also fled the field alongside the first of the militia, leaving his subordinates to salvage something out of the almighty mess.
The British made short work of defeating the stronger American right flank. Led by Mordecai Gist and the greatly respected Baron Johann de Kalb, the American army tried to get to the weaker Irish Volunteers, but were repelled by heavy gunfire. The British left flank, led by Lord Rawdon, then destabilized the American lines with a counterattack, forcing the latter to wheel around and flee. De Kalb was shot several times trying to motivate and regroup his soldiers, and died of the injuries three days later.
While both Cornwallis and Gates had stationed their weakest units to the left following the British custom, the British irregulars and Loyalists were much more experienced than the American militias. If the American arrangement had been inverted, the weaker but more numerous American militia units might have had a chance. However, they were forced to face the strongest British unit, while the Loyalists and Irish Volunteers managed to hold off the strongest American section, allowing Rawdon's regulars to inflict serious damage.
Lord Cornwallis then unleashed Banastre Tarleton's light cavalry, notoriously skilled in pursuit operations. Attacked from the rear by Tarleton's Legion, the remaining Continental forces, which had bravely held the British at bay, broke ranks and fled. Tarleton pursued the Americans for about 20 miles before retreating.
Aftermath
About half the American forces were either killed or captured. All seven of their guns were captured, and an able commander was lost in the form of Baron de Kalb. An apocryphal tale states that Cornwallis, who respected de Kalb, personally oversaw, ultimately unsuccessful, British efforts to heal the fallen American general.
The British suffered 324 casualties in total, with 68 lives lost, 11 others missing, and 245 wounded.
Horatio Gates, who had retreated all the way back to Charlotte, North Carolina, was stripped of his military duties. Incredibly, his connections with the U.S. Congress meant that he escaped further punishment and inquiries. His reputation, earned on the falsely glorifying victory at Saratoga, was in tatters. Major General Nathanael Greene, who eventually evicted the British from the Carolinas, was appointed in his place as the Commander of the southern Continental Army.
Despite the emphatic victory, the success didn't last long for the British. Having led the army in this significant victory, Lord Cornwallis then found further success hard to come. He advanced into Virginia, believing that Virginia needed to be controlled in order to establish a stronghold in the South. This allowed Greene to recapture the Carolinas, effectively wiping out British presence in the South. Cornwallis' mostly failed campaign along the Atlantic seaboard eventually led to the siege and capture of Yorktown by the George Washington-led Continental Army and the French Navy.
Causes and Effects of World War 2
World War 2 changed the course of history for the world. As you go through its causes and effects, you can't help, but wonder, could it have been avoided?
World War 2 changed the course of history for the world. As you go through its causes and effects, you can't help, but wonder, could it have been avoided?
Not many people out there need an introduction to World War 2, the
global military conflict which lasted for almost six years and resulted
in heavy loss of life and property in various parts of the world. If at
all, people need to be told about its causes and effects―the two most
crucial attributes which are now covered with the dust of ignorance.
World War 2 (1939 - 1945)
One of the most gruesome Wars of all time, World War 2 is best known for the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by the United States and the Holocaust―the genocide of six million European Jews by Nazi Germany. However, there do exist several facts about it which continue to elude most of the people out there. World War 2 was fought between two military alliances: the Allies, which comprised the Soviet Union, United States of America, United Kingdom, and other nations, and the Axis, made up of Germany, Japan, Italy, etc.
The war began on September 1, 1939, when the German forces invaded Poland, and in retaliation, France and other European nations attacked Germany. It went on for six years before culminating with a victory for the Allies on September 2, 1945. By then though, the damage was already done and the effects of this six-year-long conflict had become more than obvious. It took a long time for the affected countries to recover.
What Were the Causes of World War 2?
World War I and the Treaty of Versailles
There were numerous causes, but the most important cause was World War 1 itself. After the First World War, various nations were divided into two groups: the Allied (Entente) Powers, comprising France, British Empire, Russian Empire, United States of America, etc., which won the war, and the Central Powers, which included the German Empire, Austria-Hungary, etc. After the war, leaders representing the Big Four―Britain, France, Italy, and Russia―met at the Palace of Versailles, Paris, to decide the peace terms. It was here that the Treaty of Versailles was signed on June 28, 1919.
The Treaty of Versailles held Germany responsible for the war and put certain military restrictions on them. The motive was to handicap Germany to ensure that it would not wage another war. They were also asked to pay a huge sum of money as a fine and make substantial territorial concessions to the Allied Powers. The people of Germany were not at all happy with the proceedings. The Treaty of Versailles didn't just affect the economy of the country, but had also hurt the national pride. In Adolf Hitler, they saw hope and brought him to power.
Rise of Hitler and Nazism
Post World War 1, Germany saw the rise of Adolf Hitler and his concept of Nazism, both of which became quite popular in 1930s. Nazism was a form of socialism, which―unlike Marxism―was typically characterized by racism and expansionism. It called for obedience to a strong leader, and Hitler portrayed himself as that strong leader. He became the Chancellor of Germany in 1933 and thereafter, started rebuilding the German army.
Both, France and Britain turned a blind eye to Hitler's actions as they were not willing to fight a war. Some historians are of the opinion that they did so deliberately as they thought it was their best bet to arrest the spread of communism. Amidst this, Hitler also earned two important allies in the form of Italy and Japan.
Benito Mussolini and Fascism
While Germany witnessed the rise of Adolf Hitler and Nazism, Italy witnessed the rise of Benito Mussolini and Fascism, which was characterized by violence, racism, and totalitarianism. Both the concepts were quite similar to each other, as a result of which Hitler and Mussolini were portrayed as the leaders of war against the Allied Powers. The two joined hands with the Rome-Berlin Axis Pact in 1937 and forged a military alliance.
Japan's Plans of Territorial Expansion
Towards the beginning of 1930s, Japan was affected by depression. In a bid to tackle the same, the Japanese decided to invade the Republic of China. The Japanese army invaded Manchuria in northeastern China which was rich in mineral resources. When the League of Nations, which was formed to bring about the much-needed order in the world, stepped in at the behest of China and ordered Japan to withdraw its forces from the Chinese territory, Japan opted to leave the League itself.
The sanctions that were slapped on Japan for this defiance made it even more important for them to pursue the resource-rich regions in the neighborhood. Worried that the United States would hinder their plan of territorial expansion, the Japanese took an extreme step and attacked Pearl Harbor. The intention was to cripple the US by destroying their aircraft carriers, but the said carriers were out at sea and thus, survived the assault. The incident though, prompted the US to enter the war.
Other Causes
The Republican government under the leadership of President Woodrow Wilson decided to stay away from various political activities that were taking place in the world. The League of Nations turned out to be a failure. If historians are to be believed, the League of Nations was a toothless entity with no power whatsoever, and thus, its failure was eminent. Additionally, the world was stuck in the clutches of Great Depression.
Amidst all the chaos, countries like Germany, Italy, and Japan took an aggressive stance and attacked their neighboring countries in a bid to expand their territories. While the war actually began with Nazi Germany invading Poland in 1939, the tension was already building up with Italy's invasion of Ethiopia in 1935 and that of the Republic of China by the Empire of Japan in 1937. The Allied Powers took a serious note of these developments and retaliated with military force, which, in turn, triggered a full-fledged war.
What Were the Effects of World War 2?
Unparalleled Casualties
They say history repeats itself, which is what happened when Germany and its allies were trounced in the Second World War. If the effects of World War 1 were gruesome, those of World War 2 were a lot worse. Somewhere between 22 - 25 million soldiers and 38 - 55 million civilians lost their lives. Additionally, many more were left homeless. It is estimated that around 6 million Jews were killed in the Holocaust, the systemic state-sponsored genocide orchestrated by Adolf Hitler. Other than Jews, non-Jewish Poles and Slavs, Romanian gypsies, and even homosexuals were killed in large numbers in this genocide only because they were considered inferior.
Borders Were Redrawn
Several European and Asian countries had to bear the brunt of this war. The territorial borders of European countries were redrawn. The biggest beneficiary in terms of territorial expansion was the Soviet Union, which annexed parts of Finland, Poland, Japan, Germany, and some independent states to its territories. The worst affected nation was Germany, which was divided into four parts; one each was held by France, United States, Soviet Union, and Great Britain. The initial plans put forth by the United States for Germany were very harsh. They were only relaxed after they realized that the revival of Europe was not possible without the revival of German industrial base.
United Nations
Post World War 2, the Allied Forces came together to form the United Nations―an organization formed to promote peace and security in the world. The newly formed organization outlawed wars of aggression to ensure that a third world war doesn't happen. The Paris Peace Treaty was signed on February 10, 1947, allowing countries like Italy, Bulgaria, and Finland to resume as sovereign states in international affairs and become members of the United Nations. The Treaty also included provisions for the payment of war reparations and post-war territorial adjustments.
End of Dictatorship
On the flip side, World War 2 marked the end of dictatorship in Europe. While Mussolini was captured and shot dead on April 28, 1945, Hitler committed suicide on April 30, 1945. Emperor Hirohito was not prosecuted by the Allied Powers as General Douglas MacArthur, the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers, thought that his cooperation was necessary for the administration of Japan. The Allied Forces held the Nuremberg trials wherein the top brass of Nazi Germany―except for Hitler, Heinrich Himmler, and Joseph Goebbels―were prosecuted.
Economic Effects
As for the economic effects of World War 2, it did have some positives, but they were by no means a match for the havoc this war created. The numerous jobs created during the war brought an end to the employment crisis during the Great Depression. While those industries that manufactured the products required during the war flourished, other industries suffered a major setback. The European economy was almost brought to a standstill during the Second World War. It took quite some time for the world to revive after the war came to an end on September 2, 1945; that though, was only after millions of people lost their lives.
New Rivalry
Most important of all, World War 2 put forth the United States and Soviet Union as the super powers of the world. If World War 1 laid the foundation for World War 2, the latter laid the foundation for the Cold War between the United States and Soviet Union which lasted for 44 years between 1947 and 1991.
When the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, the United States retaliated with full military force; even going to the extent of using atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Had Japan not attacked Pearl Harbor, perhaps things would have had happened differently.
World War 2 (1939 - 1945)
One of the most gruesome Wars of all time, World War 2 is best known for the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by the United States and the Holocaust―the genocide of six million European Jews by Nazi Germany. However, there do exist several facts about it which continue to elude most of the people out there. World War 2 was fought between two military alliances: the Allies, which comprised the Soviet Union, United States of America, United Kingdom, and other nations, and the Axis, made up of Germany, Japan, Italy, etc.
The war began on September 1, 1939, when the German forces invaded Poland, and in retaliation, France and other European nations attacked Germany. It went on for six years before culminating with a victory for the Allies on September 2, 1945. By then though, the damage was already done and the effects of this six-year-long conflict had become more than obvious. It took a long time for the affected countries to recover.
What Were the Causes of World War 2?
World War I and the Treaty of Versailles
There were numerous causes, but the most important cause was World War 1 itself. After the First World War, various nations were divided into two groups: the Allied (Entente) Powers, comprising France, British Empire, Russian Empire, United States of America, etc., which won the war, and the Central Powers, which included the German Empire, Austria-Hungary, etc. After the war, leaders representing the Big Four―Britain, France, Italy, and Russia―met at the Palace of Versailles, Paris, to decide the peace terms. It was here that the Treaty of Versailles was signed on June 28, 1919.
The Treaty of Versailles held Germany responsible for the war and put certain military restrictions on them. The motive was to handicap Germany to ensure that it would not wage another war. They were also asked to pay a huge sum of money as a fine and make substantial territorial concessions to the Allied Powers. The people of Germany were not at all happy with the proceedings. The Treaty of Versailles didn't just affect the economy of the country, but had also hurt the national pride. In Adolf Hitler, they saw hope and brought him to power.
Rise of Hitler and Nazism
Post World War 1, Germany saw the rise of Adolf Hitler and his concept of Nazism, both of which became quite popular in 1930s. Nazism was a form of socialism, which―unlike Marxism―was typically characterized by racism and expansionism. It called for obedience to a strong leader, and Hitler portrayed himself as that strong leader. He became the Chancellor of Germany in 1933 and thereafter, started rebuilding the German army.
Both, France and Britain turned a blind eye to Hitler's actions as they were not willing to fight a war. Some historians are of the opinion that they did so deliberately as they thought it was their best bet to arrest the spread of communism. Amidst this, Hitler also earned two important allies in the form of Italy and Japan.
Benito Mussolini and Fascism
While Germany witnessed the rise of Adolf Hitler and Nazism, Italy witnessed the rise of Benito Mussolini and Fascism, which was characterized by violence, racism, and totalitarianism. Both the concepts were quite similar to each other, as a result of which Hitler and Mussolini were portrayed as the leaders of war against the Allied Powers. The two joined hands with the Rome-Berlin Axis Pact in 1937 and forged a military alliance.
Japan's Plans of Territorial Expansion
Towards the beginning of 1930s, Japan was affected by depression. In a bid to tackle the same, the Japanese decided to invade the Republic of China. The Japanese army invaded Manchuria in northeastern China which was rich in mineral resources. When the League of Nations, which was formed to bring about the much-needed order in the world, stepped in at the behest of China and ordered Japan to withdraw its forces from the Chinese territory, Japan opted to leave the League itself.
The sanctions that were slapped on Japan for this defiance made it even more important for them to pursue the resource-rich regions in the neighborhood. Worried that the United States would hinder their plan of territorial expansion, the Japanese took an extreme step and attacked Pearl Harbor. The intention was to cripple the US by destroying their aircraft carriers, but the said carriers were out at sea and thus, survived the assault. The incident though, prompted the US to enter the war.
Other Causes
The Republican government under the leadership of President Woodrow Wilson decided to stay away from various political activities that were taking place in the world. The League of Nations turned out to be a failure. If historians are to be believed, the League of Nations was a toothless entity with no power whatsoever, and thus, its failure was eminent. Additionally, the world was stuck in the clutches of Great Depression.
Amidst all the chaos, countries like Germany, Italy, and Japan took an aggressive stance and attacked their neighboring countries in a bid to expand their territories. While the war actually began with Nazi Germany invading Poland in 1939, the tension was already building up with Italy's invasion of Ethiopia in 1935 and that of the Republic of China by the Empire of Japan in 1937. The Allied Powers took a serious note of these developments and retaliated with military force, which, in turn, triggered a full-fledged war.
What Were the Effects of World War 2?
Unparalleled Casualties
They say history repeats itself, which is what happened when Germany and its allies were trounced in the Second World War. If the effects of World War 1 were gruesome, those of World War 2 were a lot worse. Somewhere between 22 - 25 million soldiers and 38 - 55 million civilians lost their lives. Additionally, many more were left homeless. It is estimated that around 6 million Jews were killed in the Holocaust, the systemic state-sponsored genocide orchestrated by Adolf Hitler. Other than Jews, non-Jewish Poles and Slavs, Romanian gypsies, and even homosexuals were killed in large numbers in this genocide only because they were considered inferior.
Borders Were Redrawn
Several European and Asian countries had to bear the brunt of this war. The territorial borders of European countries were redrawn. The biggest beneficiary in terms of territorial expansion was the Soviet Union, which annexed parts of Finland, Poland, Japan, Germany, and some independent states to its territories. The worst affected nation was Germany, which was divided into four parts; one each was held by France, United States, Soviet Union, and Great Britain. The initial plans put forth by the United States for Germany were very harsh. They were only relaxed after they realized that the revival of Europe was not possible without the revival of German industrial base.
United Nations
Post World War 2, the Allied Forces came together to form the United Nations―an organization formed to promote peace and security in the world. The newly formed organization outlawed wars of aggression to ensure that a third world war doesn't happen. The Paris Peace Treaty was signed on February 10, 1947, allowing countries like Italy, Bulgaria, and Finland to resume as sovereign states in international affairs and become members of the United Nations. The Treaty also included provisions for the payment of war reparations and post-war territorial adjustments.
End of Dictatorship
On the flip side, World War 2 marked the end of dictatorship in Europe. While Mussolini was captured and shot dead on April 28, 1945, Hitler committed suicide on April 30, 1945. Emperor Hirohito was not prosecuted by the Allied Powers as General Douglas MacArthur, the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers, thought that his cooperation was necessary for the administration of Japan. The Allied Forces held the Nuremberg trials wherein the top brass of Nazi Germany―except for Hitler, Heinrich Himmler, and Joseph Goebbels―were prosecuted.
Economic Effects
As for the economic effects of World War 2, it did have some positives, but they were by no means a match for the havoc this war created. The numerous jobs created during the war brought an end to the employment crisis during the Great Depression. While those industries that manufactured the products required during the war flourished, other industries suffered a major setback. The European economy was almost brought to a standstill during the Second World War. It took quite some time for the world to revive after the war came to an end on September 2, 1945; that though, was only after millions of people lost their lives.
New Rivalry
Most important of all, World War 2 put forth the United States and Soviet Union as the super powers of the world. If World War 1 laid the foundation for World War 2, the latter laid the foundation for the Cold War between the United States and Soviet Union which lasted for 44 years between 1947 and 1991.
When the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, the United States retaliated with full military force; even going to the extent of using atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Had Japan not attacked Pearl Harbor, perhaps things would have had happened differently.
Facts about Christopher Columbus
Christopher Columbus was an Italian navigator, well-known for his discovery of the American continents. Know him more through these facts about Columbus.
» It is believed that Christopher Columbus was born in 1451 in
Genoa, Italy. Coming from a middle class family, he worked with his
father at his cheese stand. He was a student of the Prince Henry's
School of Navigation, located in Portugal.
» His original name was Cristoforo Colombo. Christopher Columbus is an Anglicization of this Italian name. In Spanish, it is Cristóbal Colón, which, according to most sources, is what Columbus called himself on settling in Spain.
» Columbus was light-eyed, and had reddish hair. Columbus' son Ferdinand has described him as a person with a good stature and appearance, taller than the average and strong-limbed. He has been described as having lively eyes, red hair, a ruddy and freckled face, cheeks somewhat high, an aquiline nose, and a light complexion with a tinge of red. Ferdinand further says that Columbus' hair was blonde till thirty years of age, after which it turned white. Ironically, there exists no authentic portrait of his.
» As a teenager, Columbus took part in trading voyages to the Mediterranean and Aegean seas.
» In 1470, he was hired on a Genoese ship to help Rene I, the Duke of Anjou, in his mission to conquer the Kingdom of Naples. In 1473, Columbus served as a business agent for the Centurione, Spinola and Di Negro families in Genoa.
» One of his early voyages of 1474-75 to the island of Chios had brought him closest to Asia.
» The following year, he sailed through the Strait of Gibraltar. This was his first voyage to the Atlantic. During this 1476 voyage, he was attacked by the French privateers, his ship was burned, and he had to swim his way to Portugal. There he went to Lisbon (Portugal's capital).
columbus facing a rebellion on voyage to america
Columbus facing mutiny on his voyage to America
» In 1477, Columbus visited Galway. That's where he halted on his way to Iceland.
» He returned to Portugal and settled there. He married Felipa Perestrelo, the daughter of Bartolomeo Muniz de Perestrelo, an Italian sailor. They had a son in 1480. Out of the wedlock with Beatriz Enriquez de Arana, he had a second son Ferdinand in 1488.
» After marrying Felipa, Columbus worked as a draftsman, illustrating books and making terrestrial globes. He drew charts and maps, and collected material for his geographical study. That was the time when geographical research was in its rudimentary stage which made these drawings important for the sailors and navigators of the time. Vespucius is said to have paid 130 ducats (equals to an amount greater than today's $500) for one map.
» In 1480, Columbus, with the help of his brothers, came up with a plan to travel to the Indies, which covered the south and east Asia, by crossing the Atlantic that was then known as the Ocean Sea.
» Columbus probably underestimated the Earth's diameter and thought he would easily reach Asia by sailing across the Atlantic. Interestingly, Columbus had calculated the Earth's circumference to be just 25,255 kilometers. Contrary to common belief, he did not prove that the Earth was round.
» Before Columbus was to take up a voyage to the Indies, the Europeans believed that a westward voyage was very risky and would surely prove fatal for the voyager. Spain wanted to gain supremacy over the European countries in some way, and hence the Spanish king was ready to accept Columbus' plans. He funded Columbus' voyage that was aimed at finding a route to Asia.
» Columbus began his first voyage on August 3, 1492. He left Palos de la Frontera with a ship (Santa María) and two caravels (La Niña and La Pinta). He sailed to the Canary Islands from where he left for a five-day tour across the waters. He was accompanied by around 90 crew members. Most of them were Spanish.
columbus with ship santa maria and caravels pinta and nina
Columbus with the ship Santa Maria and the caravels La Niña and La Pinta
» With land out of their sight and no surety of whether they would return, it was natural for the crew members to panic. So that they feel less insecure, Columbus is believed to have not disclosed to them, really how far they were from land.
» On October 12, 1492, one of the sailors accompanying Columbus noticed a patch of land, which is today a part of the Bahamas. He named that patch 'San Salvador' (Christ the Savior). According to his records, the inhabitants of the island were "sweet and gentle".
» Columbus ventured to parts of Cuba and Hispaniola. On his arrival, Cuba became a Spanish colony. Hispaniola got its name when Columbus named this island as Hispana in Latin and La Isla Española in Spanish, after which the term Hispaniola came to be used commonly among the English-speaking people.
columbus and sailors landing in west indies
Columbus and the sailors landing in West Indies
» Santa Maria broke down near Hispaniola. Columbus headed for Spain in La Niña. On March 15, 1493, Columbus reached Spain. He is believed to have offered Ferdinand and Isabella (king and queen from Spain) gold and slaves in return of sponsoring his next voyage. He is believed to have taken along some people whom he kidnapped, some gold, and a few birds and plants to show Ferdinand and Isabella what he could offer.
columbus returns to spain in 1493
Columbus returns to Spain in 1493
» Columbus' second voyage began in the September of 1493. In October that year, he, along with 17 ships that carried over 1000 men, left the Canary Islands. This time, he was also accompanied by domesticated animals like pigs, horses, and cattle. He explored a number of islands like Guadalupe, Montserrat, Redondo, and Antigua during the journey.
» Was Columbus guilty of genocide? After arriving somewhere in South America, Columbus was greeted by Arawaks (term used for people inhabiting that region). He was attracted to the gold they wore and driven by his greed to acquire it, he is said to have ill-treated and enslaved them. There are accounts of him compelling the Arawaks to tell him where gold could be found and also bring him gold.
» Columbus is believed to have threatened and punished them and managed to exercise complete control over them. This, in some way, is thought to have led to mass-killings, what we better know as genocide.
» The truth of these accounts is debatable and historians and writers are divided over whether these accounts should be included in or omitted from history. Some think they can be ignored considering Columbus' excellent seamanship skills and role in the discovery of America. However, others think of him as the initiator of mass killings and slavery, and believe that history should be understood in its entirety without ignoring any aspects, good or bad.
» During his third voyage that began in May 1498, Columbus explored the Gulf of Paria and traveled to the Chacachacare and Margarita Islands.
» Columbus made his fourth voyage in search of the Strait of Malacca. This time, his brother Bartolomeo accompanied him. They had to fight many natural calamities during the voyage. Their ship had to remain stranded in Jamaica for one long year. He returned to Spain with his troops in November 1504.
» There's an interesting story of how Columbus, in a creative way, managed to make an egg stand on its tip. During a dinner with some Spanish nobles, one of them demeaned Columbus' feat of the discovery of Americas. He didn't choose to react and ordered an egg instead. He challenged the noblemen to make it stand on its tip. When everyone failed, he tapped the egg on the table, breaking it slightly to flatten it, which made it stand.
columbus challenges men to balance an egg
Columbus challenges men to balance an egg
» With the passing years, Columbus grew religious. He claimed to be hearing divine voices. Till death, he believed that he had toured to Asia during his voyages.
» He died of Reiter's syndrome on May 20, 1506.
» In the southwest region of today's Galway, is a memorial of Columbus. It was presented by the people of Genoa to the people of Galway in 1992, to celebrate the 500th anniversary of the first voyage to New India, and to commemorate Columbus' visit to the city.
» The Columbus Fountain that stands in Washington D.C. is the creation of Lorado Taft, sculpted as a tribute to Christopher Columbus.
columbus fountain
Columbus Fountain in Washington D.C.
» San Salvador houses a Club Med resort called Columbus Isle.
» The day Columbus reached the Americas that is October 12 is celebrated as Columbus Day in many parts of the world.
» Was Columbus the real discoverer of America? He was not the first European to travel to the region, as Leif Erikson, in the 11th-century Norse expedition he led, was first to land in North America. However, it was Columbus who played a vital role in establishing European relations with the Americans. This paved the way for European colonization, encouraged trade, led to developments in the Western world, and in some ways, also led to the spread of Christianity.
» The Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci showed that Brazil and West Indies were not a part of Asia as Columbus had thought them to be. He brought out the fact that the region discovered by Columbus was a separate continent, which came to be known as 'America', deriving itself from Vespucci's name.
Christopher Columbus remains to be one of the iconic figures, especially in the United States, for it was him, who brought the existence of this country to the world's notice.
» His original name was Cristoforo Colombo. Christopher Columbus is an Anglicization of this Italian name. In Spanish, it is Cristóbal Colón, which, according to most sources, is what Columbus called himself on settling in Spain.
» Columbus was light-eyed, and had reddish hair. Columbus' son Ferdinand has described him as a person with a good stature and appearance, taller than the average and strong-limbed. He has been described as having lively eyes, red hair, a ruddy and freckled face, cheeks somewhat high, an aquiline nose, and a light complexion with a tinge of red. Ferdinand further says that Columbus' hair was blonde till thirty years of age, after which it turned white. Ironically, there exists no authentic portrait of his.
» As a teenager, Columbus took part in trading voyages to the Mediterranean and Aegean seas.
» In 1470, he was hired on a Genoese ship to help Rene I, the Duke of Anjou, in his mission to conquer the Kingdom of Naples. In 1473, Columbus served as a business agent for the Centurione, Spinola and Di Negro families in Genoa.
» One of his early voyages of 1474-75 to the island of Chios had brought him closest to Asia.
» The following year, he sailed through the Strait of Gibraltar. This was his first voyage to the Atlantic. During this 1476 voyage, he was attacked by the French privateers, his ship was burned, and he had to swim his way to Portugal. There he went to Lisbon (Portugal's capital).
columbus facing a rebellion on voyage to america
Columbus facing mutiny on his voyage to America
» In 1477, Columbus visited Galway. That's where he halted on his way to Iceland.
» He returned to Portugal and settled there. He married Felipa Perestrelo, the daughter of Bartolomeo Muniz de Perestrelo, an Italian sailor. They had a son in 1480. Out of the wedlock with Beatriz Enriquez de Arana, he had a second son Ferdinand in 1488.
» After marrying Felipa, Columbus worked as a draftsman, illustrating books and making terrestrial globes. He drew charts and maps, and collected material for his geographical study. That was the time when geographical research was in its rudimentary stage which made these drawings important for the sailors and navigators of the time. Vespucius is said to have paid 130 ducats (equals to an amount greater than today's $500) for one map.
» In 1480, Columbus, with the help of his brothers, came up with a plan to travel to the Indies, which covered the south and east Asia, by crossing the Atlantic that was then known as the Ocean Sea.
» Columbus probably underestimated the Earth's diameter and thought he would easily reach Asia by sailing across the Atlantic. Interestingly, Columbus had calculated the Earth's circumference to be just 25,255 kilometers. Contrary to common belief, he did not prove that the Earth was round.
» Before Columbus was to take up a voyage to the Indies, the Europeans believed that a westward voyage was very risky and would surely prove fatal for the voyager. Spain wanted to gain supremacy over the European countries in some way, and hence the Spanish king was ready to accept Columbus' plans. He funded Columbus' voyage that was aimed at finding a route to Asia.
» Columbus began his first voyage on August 3, 1492. He left Palos de la Frontera with a ship (Santa María) and two caravels (La Niña and La Pinta). He sailed to the Canary Islands from where he left for a five-day tour across the waters. He was accompanied by around 90 crew members. Most of them were Spanish.
columbus with ship santa maria and caravels pinta and nina
Columbus with the ship Santa Maria and the caravels La Niña and La Pinta
» With land out of their sight and no surety of whether they would return, it was natural for the crew members to panic. So that they feel less insecure, Columbus is believed to have not disclosed to them, really how far they were from land.
» On October 12, 1492, one of the sailors accompanying Columbus noticed a patch of land, which is today a part of the Bahamas. He named that patch 'San Salvador' (Christ the Savior). According to his records, the inhabitants of the island were "sweet and gentle".
» Columbus ventured to parts of Cuba and Hispaniola. On his arrival, Cuba became a Spanish colony. Hispaniola got its name when Columbus named this island as Hispana in Latin and La Isla Española in Spanish, after which the term Hispaniola came to be used commonly among the English-speaking people.
columbus and sailors landing in west indies
Columbus and the sailors landing in West Indies
» Santa Maria broke down near Hispaniola. Columbus headed for Spain in La Niña. On March 15, 1493, Columbus reached Spain. He is believed to have offered Ferdinand and Isabella (king and queen from Spain) gold and slaves in return of sponsoring his next voyage. He is believed to have taken along some people whom he kidnapped, some gold, and a few birds and plants to show Ferdinand and Isabella what he could offer.
columbus returns to spain in 1493
Columbus returns to Spain in 1493
» Columbus' second voyage began in the September of 1493. In October that year, he, along with 17 ships that carried over 1000 men, left the Canary Islands. This time, he was also accompanied by domesticated animals like pigs, horses, and cattle. He explored a number of islands like Guadalupe, Montserrat, Redondo, and Antigua during the journey.
» Was Columbus guilty of genocide? After arriving somewhere in South America, Columbus was greeted by Arawaks (term used for people inhabiting that region). He was attracted to the gold they wore and driven by his greed to acquire it, he is said to have ill-treated and enslaved them. There are accounts of him compelling the Arawaks to tell him where gold could be found and also bring him gold.
» Columbus is believed to have threatened and punished them and managed to exercise complete control over them. This, in some way, is thought to have led to mass-killings, what we better know as genocide.
» The truth of these accounts is debatable and historians and writers are divided over whether these accounts should be included in or omitted from history. Some think they can be ignored considering Columbus' excellent seamanship skills and role in the discovery of America. However, others think of him as the initiator of mass killings and slavery, and believe that history should be understood in its entirety without ignoring any aspects, good or bad.
» During his third voyage that began in May 1498, Columbus explored the Gulf of Paria and traveled to the Chacachacare and Margarita Islands.
» Columbus made his fourth voyage in search of the Strait of Malacca. This time, his brother Bartolomeo accompanied him. They had to fight many natural calamities during the voyage. Their ship had to remain stranded in Jamaica for one long year. He returned to Spain with his troops in November 1504.
» There's an interesting story of how Columbus, in a creative way, managed to make an egg stand on its tip. During a dinner with some Spanish nobles, one of them demeaned Columbus' feat of the discovery of Americas. He didn't choose to react and ordered an egg instead. He challenged the noblemen to make it stand on its tip. When everyone failed, he tapped the egg on the table, breaking it slightly to flatten it, which made it stand.
columbus challenges men to balance an egg
Columbus challenges men to balance an egg
» With the passing years, Columbus grew religious. He claimed to be hearing divine voices. Till death, he believed that he had toured to Asia during his voyages.
» He died of Reiter's syndrome on May 20, 1506.
» In the southwest region of today's Galway, is a memorial of Columbus. It was presented by the people of Genoa to the people of Galway in 1992, to celebrate the 500th anniversary of the first voyage to New India, and to commemorate Columbus' visit to the city.
» The Columbus Fountain that stands in Washington D.C. is the creation of Lorado Taft, sculpted as a tribute to Christopher Columbus.
columbus fountain
Columbus Fountain in Washington D.C.
» San Salvador houses a Club Med resort called Columbus Isle.
» The day Columbus reached the Americas that is October 12 is celebrated as Columbus Day in many parts of the world.
» Was Columbus the real discoverer of America? He was not the first European to travel to the region, as Leif Erikson, in the 11th-century Norse expedition he led, was first to land in North America. However, it was Columbus who played a vital role in establishing European relations with the Americans. This paved the way for European colonization, encouraged trade, led to developments in the Western world, and in some ways, also led to the spread of Christianity.
» The Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci showed that Brazil and West Indies were not a part of Asia as Columbus had thought them to be. He brought out the fact that the region discovered by Columbus was a separate continent, which came to be known as 'America', deriving itself from Vespucci's name.
Christopher Columbus remains to be one of the iconic figures, especially in the United States, for it was him, who brought the existence of this country to the world's notice.
Flag of England: History and Meaning
One of the most easily recognizable flags in the world is the flag of England. Meaning and history behind the flag is quite an interesting subject. Read on, to know more about the flag of England, its meaning, and its history.
One of the most easily recognizable flags in the world is the flag of England. Meaning and history behind the flag is quite an interesting subject. Read on, to know more about the flag of England, its meaning, and its history.
The flag of England is a white rectangle with a red cross
separating it into four equal parts. The flag has a proportion of 3:5,
which means that the width of the flag is 5x if the height of the flag
is 3x.
The meanings of the colors on the flag of England are: white for peace, and red for bravery and hardiness.
England is one of the states in the United Kingdom. As such, officially it has no flag of its own, and uses the Union Jack (the flag of the United Kingdom) as its flag. However, the states of the United Kingdom also have a fairly independent presence in many fields. For purposes that are not political, the flag of England is sometimes used. It is mostly used in sporting events, where all the four states of the United Kingdom (England, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland) usually participate separately.
The English flag is just the St. George's Cross, used without any alteration.
Saint George's Cross flag of England
The flag of England
History
St. George's Cross originated around the medieval period as the symbol of the 'warrior saint' Saint George. This was based on a legend telling the story of how St. George defeated a dragon that was terrorizing a village and was asking for human sacrifices, including the beautiful princess.
The origin of the Cross and, particularly, its association with St. George probably occurred in the Republic of Genoa. The rulers of Genoa had adopted Saint George as the patron saint of the city in the 12th century CE. It emerged at the time of the Crusades as a popular symbol among the Christian armies.
It arrived in Great Britain after the Second Crusade. Interestingly, while departing for the Second Crusade, the British, under Henry II, had adopted a white cross, while the French, led by Philip II, had adopted a red cross. The timeline of the switch in flags is not reliably documented, and could have occurred during the return of the English soldiers. Richard the Lionheart is most often credited with bringing the St. George's Cross to England. It may even have been a tactical decision to include it as the symbol of England on the British Navy so that they could mimic the more powerful Genoese Navy in order to deter pirates from attacking British ships.
The English soldiers began using the Cross for the purpose of identification during the reign of Edward I. After the Order of the Garter was founded in 1348, George became the patron saint of England. In 1606, at the Union of the Crowns, St. George's Cross was merged with St. Andrew's Cross, the flag of Scotland, to form the first flag of the Kingdom of Great Britain. After the union of the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland, St. Patrick's Cross was added to the flag of the Union to form the second Union Flag. St. George's Cross, holds a prominent place in the Union Jack, the modern flag of the United Kingdom.
The flag of London is also heavily based on St. George's Cross, with a sword in the canton (top left quarter) of the otherwise unaltered Cross.
St. George's Cross is also used in various other countries. As mentioned before, the flag of Genoa is the same, unaltered St. George's Cross. The flags of Milan and Freiburg im Breisgau are also the same, but they are not dedicated to St. George. St. George's Cross is also found in some form on the flags of Georgia (the country, not the American state); Huesca, Teruel, and Zaragoza, the three provinces of Aragon, an autonomous community of Spain; Montreal, a city in the Quebec province of Canada; Almería, a city in southern Spain; Padua, a city in northern Italy; Zadar, a city on the Adriatic coast of Croatia.
Coloring Page
Here are printable pictures of the flag of England for the little ones to color and enjoy.
Click on the pictures to obtain a printable version
The meanings of the colors on the flag of England are: white for peace, and red for bravery and hardiness.
England is one of the states in the United Kingdom. As such, officially it has no flag of its own, and uses the Union Jack (the flag of the United Kingdom) as its flag. However, the states of the United Kingdom also have a fairly independent presence in many fields. For purposes that are not political, the flag of England is sometimes used. It is mostly used in sporting events, where all the four states of the United Kingdom (England, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland) usually participate separately.
The English flag is just the St. George's Cross, used without any alteration.
Saint George's Cross flag of England
The flag of England
History
St. George's Cross originated around the medieval period as the symbol of the 'warrior saint' Saint George. This was based on a legend telling the story of how St. George defeated a dragon that was terrorizing a village and was asking for human sacrifices, including the beautiful princess.
The origin of the Cross and, particularly, its association with St. George probably occurred in the Republic of Genoa. The rulers of Genoa had adopted Saint George as the patron saint of the city in the 12th century CE. It emerged at the time of the Crusades as a popular symbol among the Christian armies.
It arrived in Great Britain after the Second Crusade. Interestingly, while departing for the Second Crusade, the British, under Henry II, had adopted a white cross, while the French, led by Philip II, had adopted a red cross. The timeline of the switch in flags is not reliably documented, and could have occurred during the return of the English soldiers. Richard the Lionheart is most often credited with bringing the St. George's Cross to England. It may even have been a tactical decision to include it as the symbol of England on the British Navy so that they could mimic the more powerful Genoese Navy in order to deter pirates from attacking British ships.
The English soldiers began using the Cross for the purpose of identification during the reign of Edward I. After the Order of the Garter was founded in 1348, George became the patron saint of England. In 1606, at the Union of the Crowns, St. George's Cross was merged with St. Andrew's Cross, the flag of Scotland, to form the first flag of the Kingdom of Great Britain. After the union of the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland, St. Patrick's Cross was added to the flag of the Union to form the second Union Flag. St. George's Cross, holds a prominent place in the Union Jack, the modern flag of the United Kingdom.
The flag of London is also heavily based on St. George's Cross, with a sword in the canton (top left quarter) of the otherwise unaltered Cross.
St. George's Cross is also used in various other countries. As mentioned before, the flag of Genoa is the same, unaltered St. George's Cross. The flags of Milan and Freiburg im Breisgau are also the same, but they are not dedicated to St. George. St. George's Cross is also found in some form on the flags of Georgia (the country, not the American state); Huesca, Teruel, and Zaragoza, the three provinces of Aragon, an autonomous community of Spain; Montreal, a city in the Quebec province of Canada; Almería, a city in southern Spain; Padua, a city in northern Italy; Zadar, a city on the Adriatic coast of Croatia.
Coloring Page
Here are printable pictures of the flag of England for the little ones to color and enjoy.
Click on the pictures to obtain a printable version
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